【正文】 手段 —— 目的分析 ” （ 3）排列問題 eg→2upzle→puzzle 三．知識和經(jīng)驗對問題解決的影響專家與新手 棋子排列 （ hi(1981)的實驗 專家 物理學教授；新手：剛開始學物理的人 要求 對題目分類 結果： 新手根據(jù)圖的相似程度分類 旋轉問題 （既根據(jù)題目的表面特征分類）斜面問題 專家根據(jù)用到的定律，方法分類：能量守恒 牛頓第二定律 專家喜歡順向思維 —— working forward 新午喜歡用逆向思維 —— working backward amp。Antrobus(1972) 29個分量表 —— 作因素分需，再對被試分組 結果 負疚 —— 煩躁型 焦慮 —— 錯亂型 沉思型 不同文化背景的人，想象有差異 黑人 意大利人 愛爾蘭人 日耳曼人 多 少 Kripke Sonnenshein(1975) 想象頻率與時間關系，每隔 90 分鐘出現(xiàn)一次高潮想象的作用： 計劃功能；提醒功能；保持警惕 3．實驗研究 （ 1） 任務要求（高，低） 信號檢測任務 —— 自變量 與任務無關的思維作為想象的證據(jù) —— 因變量 → 結論：任務要求越高，無關思維越少。（抽象思維中） (ii) 言語的發(fā)展推動了思維的發(fā)展 (iii) 思維對言語也是有作用的 思維的發(fā)展也推動言語的發(fā)展 eg:語法學習有助于學好語言 漢語特點（ p374） 思維與言語（ p378） 可見言語，語圖儀（ P381） (可以不看 ) ecame to me an object of desire, I would express the desire by the nameless simplicity. Simplicity without a name is free from all external aim. With no desire, at rest and still, all things go right as of their will. 38 (Those who) possessed in highest degree the attributes (of the Tao) did not (seek) to show them, and therefore they possessed them (in fullest measure). (Those who) possessed in a lower degree those attributes (sought how) not to lose them, and therefore they did not possess them (in fullest measure). (Those who) possessed in the highest degree those attributes did nothing (with a purpose), and had no need to do anything. (Those who) possessed them in a lower degree were (always) doing, and had need to be so doing. (Those who) possessed the highest benevolence were (always seeking) to carry it out, and had no need to be doing so. (Those who) possessed the highest righteousness were (always seeking) to carry it out, and had need to be so doing. (Those who) possessed the highest (sense of) propriety were (always seeking) to show it, and when men did not respond to it, they bared the arm and marched up to them. Thus it was that when the Tao was lost, its attributes appeared。 swift apprehension is (only) a flower of the Tao, and is the beginning of stupidity. Thus it is that the Great man abides by what is solid, and eschews what is flimsy。 Valleys kept full throughout their void All creatures which through it do live Princes and kings who from it get The model which to all they give. All these are the results of the One (Tao). If heaven were not thus pure, it soon would rend。 If not so filled, the drought would parch each vale。 39。 Is not this an acknowledgment that in their considering themselves mean they see the foundation of their dignity? So it is that in the enumeration of the different parts of a carriage we do not e on what makes it answer the ends of a carriage. They do not wish to show themselves elegantlooking as jade, but (prefer) to be coarselooking as an (ordinary) stone. 40 The movement of the Tao By contraries proceeds。The Tao, when brightest seen, seems light to lack。 And he has most whose lot the least supplies. Its firmest virtue seems but poor and low。 A semblance great, the shadow of a shade.39。 Two produced Three。 Keep them and lose your life:which brings Sorrow and pain more near? Thus we may see, Who cleaves to fame Rejects what is more great。 Thy greatest art still stupid seem, And eloquence a stammering scream. Constant action overes cold。 no fault greater than the wish to be getting. Therefore the sufficiency of contentment is an enduring and unchanging sufficiency. 47 Without going outside his door, one understands (all that takes place) under the sky。 he who devotes himself to the Tao (seeks) from day to day to diminish (his doing). He diminishes it and again diminishes it, till he arrives at doing nothing (on purpose). Having arrived at this point of nonaction, there is nothing which he does not do. He who gets as his own all under heaven does so by giving himself no trouble (with that end). If one take trouble (with that end), he is not equal to getting as his own all under heaven. 49 The sage has no invariable mind of his own。 and to those who are not sincere (with me), I am also sincere。 it carries them through their processes and does not vaunt its ability in doing so。 the guarding of what is soft and tender is (the secret of) strength. Who uses well his light, Reverting to its (source so) bright, Will from his body ward all blight, And hides the unchanging from men39。s) skilful planter plants Can never be uptorn。 And where the family it rules What riches will accrue! The neighbourhood where it prevails In thriving will abound。 in the family。 fierce beasts will not seize him。showing the harmony (in its constitution). To him by whom this harmony is known, (The secret of) the unchanging (Tao) is shown, And in the knowledge wisdom finds its throne. All lifeincreasing arts to evil turn。 he will attemper his brightness, and bring himself into agreement with the obscurity (of others). This is called 39。 of nobility or meanness:he is the noblest man under heaven. 57 A state may be ruled by (measures of) correction。 the more implements to add to their profit that the people have, the greater disorder is there in the state and clan。 I will be fond of keeping still, and the people will of themselves bee correct. I will take no trouble about it, and the people will of themselves bee rich。 (like) a corner which injures no one (with its sharpness). He is straightforward, but allows himself no license。it bees the centre to which tend (all the small states) under heaven. (To illustrate from) the case of all females:the female always overes the male by her stillness. Stillness may be considered (a sort of) abasement. Thus it is that a great state, by condescending to small states, gains the m for its