【正文】 ing trade accelerated and has continued to expand with improvements in transportation and munications, it is not surprising that the UK would turn more to the nearby and large economies in Europe for much of its trade. This is a direct prediction of the gravity model.作為一章討論,一個(gè)世紀(jì)以前,大部分世界貿(mào)易在商品在許多方面是氣候和地理位置決定。在工業(yè)革命的后果,制造貿(mào)易加速和繼續(xù)擴(kuò)大和改善交通和通信,這是不奇怪的,英國(guó)會(huì)更到附近和在歐洲大型經(jīng)濟(jì)體的大量貿(mào)易。如果一個(gè)人放棄收獲的蘋果，這將釋放三單位的勞動(dòng)。2. a. The production possibility curve is linear, with the intercept on the apple axis equal to 160(800/5) and the intercept on the banana axis equal to 800(800/1).生產(chǎn)可能性曲線是線性的，在蘋果軸等于160（800 / 5），香蕉軸等于截距800（800 / 1）。蘋果按3 / 2的價(jià)格提供的最大數(shù)量是按國(guó)內(nèi)400提供的，在這個(gè)價(jià)格，國(guó)外收獲800個(gè)香蕉，沒(méi)有蘋果，在這個(gè)價(jià)格的1 / 2給出最大的相對(duì)供給。因此，相對(duì)供給曲線為階梯狀，在價(jià)格的3/2處，從0到1/2是水平的，垂直的相對(duì)量的1 / 2，從3 / 2上升到5，然后再?gòu)? / 2平至無(wú)限遠(yuǎn)。貿(mào)易使得每個(gè)國(guó)家可以用2個(gè)香蕉換取1個(gè)蘋果。相對(duì)需求和相對(duì)供給曲線的交點(diǎn)現(xiàn)在是在較低的水平段，在點(diǎn) (2/3, 3/2)。關(guān)鍵的一點(diǎn)是，相對(duì)工資率不憑空得來(lái)的；他們是通過(guò)比較生產(chǎn)力和商品的相對(duì)需求決定的。 7. The problem with this argument is that it does not use all the information needed for determining parative advantage in production: this calculation involves the four unit labor requirements (for both the industry and service sectors, not just the two for the service sector). It is not enough to pare only service’s unit labor requirements. IfHome labor is more efficient than Foreign labor in services. While this demonstrates that the United States has an absolute advantage in services, this is neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for determining parative advantage. For this determination, the industry ratios are also required. The petitive advantage of any industry depends on both the relative productivities of the industries and the relative wages across industries.這種觀點(diǎn)的問(wèn)題在于，在生產(chǎn)中，它不使用所需的所有信息確定比較優(yōu)勢(shì)：這種計(jì)算涉及四單位勞動(dòng)需求（包括工業(yè)和服務(wù)業(yè)，不只是兩個(gè)服務(wù)部門）。對(duì)于這個(gè)決定，也需要行業(yè)比率。這使得美國(guó)的購(gòu)買力獲益和提高。結(jié)果，美國(guó)的購(gòu)買力比日本高是因?yàn)樗麄冊(cè)诓唤灰孜锲返牡蛢r(jià)格上。如果運(yùn)輸費(fèi)用很高，沒(méi)有物品交換的話，這里就沒(méi)有商業(yè)收益了。4. In the Ricardian model, labor gains from trade through an increase in its purchasing power. This result does not support labor union demands for limits on imports from less affluent countries. The HeckscherOhlin model directly addresses distribution by considering the effects of trade on the owners of factors of production. In the context of this model, unskilled . labor loses from trade since this group represents the relatively scarce factors in this country. The results from the HeckscherOhlin model support labor union demands for import limits. In the short run, certain unskilled unions may gain or lose from trade depending on in which sector they work, but in theory, in the longer run, the conclusions of the HeckscherOhlin model will ，勞動(dòng)力通過(guò)增加其購(gòu)買力，從交易中獲利。從赫克歇爾俄林模型支持工會(huì)的要求限制進(jìn)口的結(jié)果。在短期內(nèi)，雖然，它顯然已經(jīng)傷害了那些與特定行業(yè)的技能的人將面臨轉(zhuǎn)型成本。此外，沒(méi)有任何一個(gè)貿(mào)易政策的作用存在于真空中，如果美國(guó)封鎖了編程的進(jìn)口，這可能會(huì)導(dǎo)致在其他國(guó)家更廣泛的貿(mào)易限制。鮑文，他和sveikauskas發(fā)現(xiàn)世界作為一個(gè)整體的要素稟賦和貿(mào)易模式之間的關(guān)系是脆弱的。要素價(jià)格均等化的概念也適用于有效的因素。Chapter 6n?Answers to Textbook Problems 1. Cases a and d reflect external economies of scale since concentration of the production of an industry in a few locations reduces the industry’s costs even when the scale of operation of individual firms remains small. External economies need not lead to imperfect petition. The benefits of geographical concentration may include a greater variety of specialized services to support industry operations and larger labor markets or thicker input markets. Cases b and c reflect internal economies of scale and occur at the level of the individual firm. The larger the output of a product by a particular firm, the lower its average costs. This leads to imperfect petition as in petrochemicals, aircraft, and 。較大的輸出產(chǎn)品由一個(gè)特定的公司,其平均成本越低。邊際收益總是小于不完全競(jìng)爭(zhēng)市場(chǎng)下的價(jià)格因?yàn)槌鍪垲~外的單位產(chǎn)出,企業(yè)必須降低價(jià)格的單位,不只是邊緣。 4. Although this problem is a bit tricky and the numbers don’t work out nicely, a solution does exist. The first step in finding the solution is to determine the equilibrium number of firms in the industry. The equilibrium number of firms is that number, n, at which price equals average cost. We know that AC = F/X + c, where F represents fixed costs of production, X represents the level of sales by each firm, and c represents marginal costs. We also know that P = c + (1/bn), where P and b represent price and the demand parameter. Also, if all firms follow the same pricing rule, then X = S/n where S equals total industry sales. So, set price equal to average cost, cancel out the c’s and replace X by S/n. Rearranging what is left yields the formula n2 = S/Fb. Substitute in S = 900,000 + 1,600,000 + 3,750,000 = 6,250,000, F = 750,000,000 and b = 1/30,000. The numerical answer is that n = firms. However, since you will never see firms, there will be 15 firms that enter the market, not 16 firms since the last firm knows that it can not make positive profits. The rest of the solution is straightforward. Using X = S/n, output per firm is 41,666 units. Using the price equation, and the fact that c = 5,000, yields an equilibrium price of $7,000. 5. a. 17,000 + 150/n = 5,000,000,000n/S + 17,000. With SUS = 300 million, the number of automakers equals three. With SE = 533 million, the number of automakers equals four.b. PUS = 17,000 + 150/3, PUS = $17,050. PE = 17,000 + 150/4, PUS = $17,.c. 17,000 + 150/n = 5,000,000,000n/S + 17,000. With SUS+E = 833 million, the number of total automakers now equals five. This helps to explain some of the consolidation that has happened in the industry since trade has bee more free in recent decades, ., Ford acquiring Jaguar, DaimlerBenz acquiring Chrysler, etc.d. Prices fall in the United States as well as Europe to $17,030. Also, variety increases in both markets: in the United States, consumers were able to choose between three brands before free trade。兩個(gè)其他的例子:生物技術(shù)和飛機(jī)設(shè)計(jì)。如果這些操作都是大的，也有可能在生產(chǎn)規(guī)模經(jīng)濟(jì)體內(nèi)部的。d. “True” scotch whiskey can only e from Scotland. The production of scotch whiskey requires a technique known to skilled distillers who are concentrated in the region. Also, soil and climactic conditions are favorable for grains used in local scotch production. This reflects parative advantage.“真正的“蘇格蘭威士忌只能來(lái)自蘇格蘭。