【正文】 North), around the delta, and Upper Egypt (South) up to the 1st cataract. Egypt after 4,000 BC ? The farming villages have anized into small regional chiefdoms. Each has a major town in its core, which is the focus of economic activity and social/political/religious/cultural life. ? Nagada 3,600 BC – Intensified farming increased productivity – Support for nonfarming occupationsartisans, politicians etc – Nagada site is a walled town that contains major cemeteries – Architecture is rectangular with variety of housetypes, some modest and others palatial stratification… ? Nagada, like Hierakonpolis, are called kingdoms, but really are more like large chiefdoms or small citystates. ? Each of these “kingdoms” had its own material culture (pottery) and symbolic motifs (falcon the symbol of Hierakonpolis) ? Similar kingdoms existed in Lower Egypt, but are less well understood ? Each kingdom was an economic entity connected to other kingdoms along the Nile and to other cultures in Africa, SW Asia, Europe and beyond! Network of land, river and sea trade routes extended across the ancient world! Hierakonpolis Old Kingdom 3,100 BC ? Factors that contributed to ascend of Hierakonpolis – 3,500 BC grasslands denunded (overgrazing, stripping for pottery/mudbrick) reduced animal production. Kingdom responds by developing largescale irrigation systems productivity is increased, but so is control over this productivity. – Upper Egypt establishes overland trade with SW Asia, bypassing Lower Egypt! Gold is found east of Upper Nile! Such economic developments lead to war between Upper and Lower Egypt, which is won by Hierakonpolis – Writing develops around 3,100 BC, permitting improved administration of larger population and allowing the unified kingdom to remain under the authority of a single ruler!!! ? The ruler’s name: Narmer. His victory over Lower Egypt is memorialized in the famous Narmer Palette Consequences of Unification ? Earlier kingdoms became provinces (nomes), lead by nomarchs. These nomarchs were allies of Narmer, who had a vested interest in unification ? All the separate images, symbols and deities became synthesized into one stateshared religion. Many of the famous Egyptian Gods were symbols of the early kingdom towns ? Irrigation systems became mon throughout the Nile, thereby increasing productivity and the economic power of administrators ? Egypt began acting as a single entity in its relations with outsiders in trade, defense, exploration ? Rulers became the focus of the state, through a consolidation of power from: – Religion (they were gods) – Economy (they controlled and were responsible for the harvest) – Culture (they were the center of festivals and social activities) – Administration (they ruled an extensive bureaucracy) – Wealth (they lived in opulence unimaginable for others。古代埃及的居民逐漸融化于阿拉伯人中，古埃及文字被人遺忘，直到十九世紀(jì)才被釋讀出來。當(dāng)時羅馬政府強制公務(wù)員擔(dān)負(fù)某種公共義務(wù)，甚至擔(dān)負(fù)其職務(wù)范圍內(nèi)的費用，或包下所轄范圍內(nèi)的稅收，由于納稅人逃亡而征不上來的稅都要由他們補足上交。然而，這種代耕或派耕的王田，久而久之變成了私田，為大土地所有者所呑食、兼并、無力承擔(dān)代耕或派耕義務(wù)及其它苛捐雜稅和勞役義務(wù)的農(nóng)民，往往尋求大土地所有者的庇護，于是庇護制在公元三世紀(jì)以后盛行起來。（ 2）羅馬政府將沒收的土地加以拍賣，從而使之變成私有土地。395年，羅馬帝國分裂，埃及為東羅馬（拜占廷帝國）的一部分。當(dāng)然，還有私人土地，土地買賣也是一種合法現(xiàn)象。 ? 托勒密王朝主要依靠希臘 ――馬其頓的殖民者，他們不僅控制了整個國家的中央政權(quán)，而且控制了各州的政權(quán)，各地還有由希臘人組成的駐防軍。公元前404年終于爭得獨立，但公元前 343年埃及被波斯再度征服，不過此時波斯已是朝不保夕了。 ? 波斯人把埃及作為一個行省，每年要埃及向它繳納大量貢賦，波斯貴族還把大批肥沃的土地?fù)?jù)為己有，于是在埃及形成了許多屬于波斯奴隸主，由奴隸勞動的大地產(chǎn)，這些奴隸主貴族住在埃及的城市里，或住在兩河流域的大城市里，剝削壓榨埃及人民。 ? 改革雖然失敗了，但它對當(dāng)時在埃及占統(tǒng)治地位的宗教神權(quán)勢力給予一定打擊，對于藝術(shù)的發(fā)展也起過推動作用。 ? 這次改革只維持了十八年，他死后，其繼承者恢復(fù)了對阿蒙神的崇拜，土地、財產(chǎn)歸還給了阿蒙神廟，首都遷回了底比斯。 ? 中小奴隸主階層（涅木虎）同神廟祭司奴隸主有財產(chǎn)與權(quán)力再分配的矛盾，因而支持王權(quán)同祭司奴隸主斗爭，當(dāng)法老國同神廟祭司的矛盾日益尖銳化和表面化時，法老們就不僅從貴族中，而且從中小奴隸主中選拔官吏，這是改革的支持者。 ? 新王國時期，奴隸不僅在神廟及其他奴隸主家中從事農(nóng)業(yè)、手工業(yè)及服務(wù)性勞動，而且還可領(lǐng)取份地，與自由民一樣進行耕種，到時繳納地租，死后其子孫還可繼續(xù)耕種交租，這是奴隸制發(fā)展到新王國時期的一個值得注意的變化，這說明奴隸制此時已發(fā)到了極限，新的生產(chǎn)關(guān)系已經(jīng)萌芽。奴隸主手中占有了大量財富和勞動力，神廟不僅占有土地數(shù)量多，而且多是能灌溉的好地，因此，神廟是奴隸主經(jīng)濟中經(jīng)濟實力最雄厚的一個集團。不過他們要將自己的兒子送到埃及作為人質(zhì)，埃及還派駐軍控制這些地方。 ? 雅赫摩斯在穩(wěn)定內(nèi)部的同時，開始了對外侵略戰(zhàn)爭。?？怂魉谷说慕y(tǒng)治給埃及人民帶來雙重苦難：一方面要受本國奴隸主的剝削壓迫，另一方面又要受希克索斯奴隸主的掠奪。伊浦味是個奴隸主貴族，他對起義進行了攻擊和咒罵，但從文章中可以看出起義的一些情況。 二、奴隸貧民大起義 ? 為了加強中央集權(quán)，國王一度