【正文】 development may be judged by the production level and sophistication of its chemical industry4. Research and Development (Ramp。D) in Chemical Industries One of the main reasons for the rapid growth of the chemical industry in the developed world has been its great mitment to, and investment in research and development (Ramp。D). A typical figure is 5% of sales ine, with this figure being almost doubled for the most research intensive sector, pharmaceuticals. It is important to emphasize that we are quoting percentages here not of profits but of sales ine, . the total money received, which has to pay for raw materials, overheads, staff salaries, etc. as well. In the past this tremendous investment has paid off well, leading to many useful and valuable products being introduced to the market. Examples 攀枝花學院 專科 畢業(yè)設計 外文文獻 5 include synthetic polymers like nylons and polyesters, and drugs and pesticides. Although the number of new products introduced to the market has declined significantly in recent years, and in times of recession the research department is usually one of the first to suffer cutbacks, the mitment to Ramp。D remains at a very high level. The chemical industry is a very high technology industry which takes full advantage of the latest advances in electronics and engineering. Computers are very widely used for all sorts of applications, from automatic control of chemical plants, to molecular modeling of structures of new pounds, to the control of analytical instruments in the laboratory. Individual manufacturing plants have capacities ranging from just a few tones per year in the fine chemicals area to the real giants in the fertilizer and petrochemical sectors which range up to 500,000 tonnes. The latter requires enormous capital investment, since a single plant of this size can now cost $520 million! This, coupled with the widespread use of automatic control equipment, helps to explain why the chemical industry is capitalrather than laborintensive. The major chemical panies are truly multinational and operate their sales and marketing activities in most of the countries of the world, and they also have manufacturing units in a number of countries. This international outlook for operations, or globalization, is a growing trend within the chemical industry, with panies expanding their activities either by erecting manufacturing units in other countries or by taking over panies which are already operating there. 攀枝花學院 專科 畢業(yè)設計 外文文獻 6 化學工業(yè) 盡管化學品的使用可以追溯到古代文明時代，我們所謂的現(xiàn)代化學工業(yè)的發(fā)展卻是非常近代（才開始的）?？梢哉J為它起源于工業(yè)革命其間，大約在 1800年，并發(fā)展成為為其它工業(yè)部門提供化學原料的產(chǎn)業(yè)。比如制肥皂所用的堿，棉布生產(chǎn)所用的漂白粉，玻璃制造業(yè)所用的硅及 Na2CO3. 我們會注意到所有這些都是無機物。有機化學工業(yè)的開始是在十九世紀六十年代以 William Henry Perkin 發(fā)現(xiàn)第一種合成染料 — 苯胺紫并加以開發(fā)利用為標志的。 20 世紀初，德國 花費大量資金用于實用化學方面的重點研究，到 1914 年，德國的化學工業(yè)在世界化學產(chǎn)品市場上占有 75%的份額。這要歸因于新染料的發(fā)現(xiàn)以及硫酸的接觸法生產(chǎn)和氨的哈伯生產(chǎn)工藝的發(fā)展。而后者需要較大的技術(shù)突破使得化學反應第一次可以在非常高的壓力條件下進行。這方面所取得的成績對德國很有