【正文】 個或幾個原因：新技術(shù)的利用、原材料的獲得或價格發(fā)生了變化。它的制造方法隨著經(jīng)濟(jì)、技術(shù)和原材料的變化改變了好幾次。因而銷售量對生產(chǎn)流程的經(jīng)濟(jì)效益有很大影響。The ability of penicillin to prevent the onset of septicemia in battle wounds during the Second World War (1939～1945) resulted in an enormous demand for it to be produced in quantity. Up until then it had only been produced in small amounts on the surface of the fermentation broth in milk bottles! An enormous Ramp。而在那時，penicillin只能用在瓶裝牛奶表面發(fā)酵的方法小量的生產(chǎn)。首先用一個不同的菌株—黃霉菌代替普通的青霉，它的產(chǎn)量要比后者高得多。只要在培養(yǎng)液中持續(xù)通入大量純化空氣，發(fā)酵就能在所有部位進(jìn)行。而在第一次世界大戰(zhàn)中，死于傷口感染的士兵比直接死于戰(zhàn)場上的人還要多。Process development for a new product depends on things such as the scale on which it is to be manufactured, the byproducts formed and their removal/recovery, and required purity. Data will be acquired during this development stage using semitechnical plant (up to 100 liters capacity) which will be invaluable in the design of the actual manufacturing plant. If the plant is to be a very large capacity, continuously operating one, . petrochemical or ammonia, then a pilot plant will first be built and operated to test out the process and acquire more data, these semitechnical or pilot plants will be required for testing, ., a pesticide, or customer evaluation, ., a new polymer.對一個新產(chǎn)品進(jìn)行開發(fā)要考慮產(chǎn)品生產(chǎn)的規(guī)模、產(chǎn)生的副產(chǎn)品以及分離/回收，產(chǎn)品所要求的純度。要先建立一個中試車間，運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)并測試流程以獲得更多的數(shù)據(jù)。Note that byproducts can has a major influence on the economics of a chemical process. Phenol manufacture provides a striking example of this. The original route, the benzenesulphonic acid route, has bee obsolete because demand for its byproduce sodium sulfite ( tons/l ton phenol) has dried up. Its recovery and disposal will therefore be an additional charge on the process, thus increasing the cost of the phenol. In contrast the cumene route owes its economic advantage over all the other routes to the strong demand for the byproduct acetone ( tons/l ton phenol).The sale of this therefore reduces the net cost of the phenol.注意，副產(chǎn)品對于化學(xué)過程的經(jīng)濟(jì)效益也有很大的影響。早期的方法，苯磺酸方法，由于它的副產(chǎn)品亞硫酸鈉需求枯竭而變的過時。相反，異丙基苯方法，在經(jīng)濟(jì)效益方面優(yōu)于所有其他方法就在于市場對于它的副產(chǎn)品丙酮的迫切需求。A major part of the process development activity for a mew plant is to minimize, or ideally prevent by designing out, waste production and hence possible pollution. The economic and environmental advantages of this are obvious.對一個新產(chǎn)品進(jìn)行工藝開發(fā)的一個重要部分是通過設(shè)計把廢品減到最低，或盡可能地防止可能的污染，這樣做帶來的經(jīng)濟(jì)利益和對環(huán)境的益處是顯而易見的。（3) Process improvement. Process improvement relates to processes which are already operating. It may be a problem that has arisen and stopped production. In this situation there is a lot of pressure to find a solution as soon as possible so that production can restart, since ‘down time’ costs money.（3）工藝改進(jìn)。它可能出現(xiàn)了某個問題使生產(chǎn)停止。down time: 故障期More monly, however, process improvement will be directed at improving the profitability of the process. This might be achieved in a number of ways. For example, improving the yield by optimizing the process, increasing the capacity by introducing a new catalyst, or lowering the energy requirements of the process. An example of the latter was the introduction of turbo pressors in the production of ammonia by the Haber process. This reduced utility costs (mainly electricity) from $ to % per ton of ammonia produced. Improving the quality of the product, by process modification, may lead to new markets for the product.然而，更為常見的，工藝改進(jìn)是為了提高生產(chǎn)過程的利潤。例如通過優(yōu)化流程提高產(chǎn)量，引進(jìn)新的催化劑提高效能，或降低生產(chǎn)過程所需要的能量。這使生產(chǎn)氨的成本（主要是電）。In recent years, however, the most important process improvement activity has been to reduce the environmental impact of the process, ., to prevent the process causing any pollution. Clearly there have been two interlinked driving forces for this. Firstly, the public’s concern about the safety of chemicals and their effect on the environment, and the legislation which has followed as a result of this. Secondly the cost to the manufacturer of having to treat waste (., material which cannot be recovered and used r sold) so that it can be safely disposed of, say by pumping into a river. This obviously represents a charge on the process which will increase the cost of the chemical being made. The potential for improvement by reducing the amount of waste is selfevident.然而，近年來，最重要的工藝改進(jìn)行為主要是減少生產(chǎn)過程對環(huán)境的影響，亦即防止生產(chǎn)過程所引起的污染。第一，公眾對化學(xué)產(chǎn)品的安全性及其對環(huán)境所產(chǎn)生影響的關(guān)注以及由此而制訂出來的法律；第二，生產(chǎn)者必須花錢對廢物進(jìn)行處理以便它能安全地清除，比如說，排放到河水中。通過減少廢物數(shù)量提高效益其潛能是不言而喻的。因此，上面所提到的減少廢品的重要性應(yīng)在新公廠的設(shè)計階段加以考慮。(4) Applications development. Clearly the discovery of new applications or uses for a product can increase or prolong its profitability. Not only does this generate more ine but the resulting increased scale of production can lead to lower unit costs and increased profit. An example is PVC whose early uses included records and plastic raincoats. Applications which came later included plastic bags and particularly engineering uses in pipes and guttering. （4）應(yīng)用開發(fā)。這不僅能創(chuàng)造更多的收入，而且由于產(chǎn)量的增加使單元生產(chǎn)成本降低，從而使利潤提高。Emphasis has already been placed on the fact that chemicals are usually purchased for the effect, or particular use, or application which they have. This often means that there will be close liaison between the chemical panies’ technical sales representatives and the customer, and the level of technical support for the customer can be a major factor in winning sales. Research and development chemists provide the support for these applications developments. An example is CF3CH3F. This is the first of the CFC replacements and has been developed as a extracting natural products from plant materials. In no way was this envisaged when the pound was first being made for use as a refrigerant gas, but it clearly is an example of applications development.我們已經(jīng)強(qiáng)調(diào)了化學(xué)產(chǎn)品是由于它們的效果，或特殊的用途、用處而得以售出這個事實(shí)。對顧客的技術(shù)支持水平往往是贏得銷售的一個重要的因素。CH3CH3F的制造就是一個例子。然而近來發(fā)現(xiàn)它還可以用作從植物中萃取出來的天然物質(zhì)的溶解劑。 in Ramp。D carried out varies significantly across the various sectors of the chemical industry. In sectors which involve largescale production of basic chemicals and where the chemistry, products and technology change only slowly because the process are mature, Ra