【正文】 : Note whet her any gener al t ypes of gramm at ical constr uct ion ar e used t o special ef ect ( eg par at ive or super lati ve constr uctions, coor di nat ive or l isti ng constr uct ions, par ent het ical constr uct ions, i nt erj ect ions and af ter thought s as occur in causal speech). And see to t he number of l i st s and coor dinati ons. Figures of Speech Her e we consi der t he featur es whi ch are f oregrounded by vir tue of depar ti ng in some way fr om gener al nor ms of municati on by means of t he language code, f or example, expl oit at ion of deviati ons f rom t he l inguisti c code. Gr am mati cal and lexical schemes (f oregrounded repeti tions of expr esion) : Ar e t her e any cases of for mal and str uctural r epeti ti on (anaphor a, paral leli sm , et c) or of mi r or im age pat erns ( chi asmus)? Is t he rhetor ical ef fect of t hese one of ant it hesis, r ei nforcement, cli max, ant icli max, et c? Phonological schemes: Ar e ther e any phonological pat terns of r hym e, al it erati on, assonance, etc? Ar e there any sali ent r hyt hmical pat ter ns? Do vowel s and consonant sounds pat ter n or cl ust er in part icular ways? How do t hese phonol ogical f eat ures i nt eract wi t h meani ng? Tropes (f oregrounded ir regulari ti es of content) : Are there any obvious violat ions of or neologisms f rom t he l inguisti c code? For exam ple, ar e t her e any neol ogi sms (such as “port ent ous inf ant s”)? Are t her e any semant ic, synt act ic, phonological, or graphological deviat ions? Such deviati ons ar e oft en t he cl ue to speci al i nterpr etati ons associ at ed wit h t radit ional f igur es of speech such as m et aphor , m etonym y, synecdoche, par adox, and ir ony. I f such t ropes occur, what kind of special int erpret at ion i s involved ( for example, metaphor can be classi fi ed as per sonif ying, ani mali zing, concre ti zing, synaestheti c, et c) ? Context and cohesi on Her e we t ake a look at features whi ch ar e gener al y ful ly dealt wi th i n discour se anal ysi s. Under cohesi on ways in which one part of a text is l inked to anot her are considered。 and wor ds ar e also symbols. ( P. 218. Oxfor d Concise Di ct ionary of Li ter ar y Term s. ) A sym bol i s a thi ng that suggest s more than it s li ter al m eaning. It exists wi dely even in our dail y l if e. Our l anguage itself i s sym bol . The dai ly gr et ings indicate t hat he passage of muni cati on i s open. Ring i s a sym bol of eter ni ty. The sign of cross indicates atonement. The Big Ben sym bol izes London, the Gr eat Wal l China. Rit ual isti c act s are symboli c. I n chur ch wedding t he br ide i s handed over fr om t he father to the groom. Hol y eating is symbol ic of muni on, bapti zi ng cleansing and r ebi rt h. The raising and l oweri ng of a nat ional f lag cert ainly suggest meanings lar ger t han t he act s themselves. And f inal y t oasti ng and shaking hands on f or m al or inf or mal occasions. As r het ori cal device, symbol is dif f er ent f rom metaphor, which i s li ter al ly false but fi gur ati vel y tr ue. Unl ike al egor y, whi ch repr esents abst ract term s li ke “l(fā) ove” or “tr uth, ” sym bol s ar e percepti bl e objects. In l it er atur e almost anythi ng—part icular objects, character s, set ti ng, and acti ons—can be symboli c if t he aut hor wi shes t o make it so by ei ther hi nti ng or insi sting that he mater ial means m ore t han it li ter al ly does. Symbol s ar e suggested t hr ough special tr eat ment such as imagery, repeti ti on, connot at ive l anguage, or other art isti c devi ces. I n F. Scot t Fit zgeral d’ s novel The Gr eat Gat sby, a huge pair of bespectacled eyes st ar es acr oss a wil dness of ash heaps f r om a bi lboard advert ising t he ser vices of an oculi st . Repeatedly appeari ng in t he st ory, the bespectacled eyes e to mean more t han si mply t he avai labil it y of eye examinati on. A char act er i n t he st ory pares i t o t he eyes of God。 it is, rat her , a symbol the poet or the wr it er adopts f or the purpose of hi s/ her wor k, and it is t o be under stood only i n the context of that wor k. It dif f er s fr om the kind of symbol il ust rat ed by the f igure 3 because i t is concr ete and speci fi c. A poet or a wr it er uses symbols for the same r eason he/ she uses sim il es, metaphors, and images, etc: they help t o express hi s/her meani ng in a way that wil l appeal t o t he senses and t o the emot ions of the r eader. Most symbol s, i n li ter at ure and ever yday l i f e as wel l, posses a tr em endous condensi ng power. Thei r focusi ng on t he r elati onshi ps between t he visibl e (audible) and what they suggest can kindle it int o a single impact. Of cour se, i n li ter ar y wor ks, symbols, unl ike t hose in ordinar y li fe, usual y do not “st and for” any one meani ng, nor for anything absolutely def ini te。 on t he other hand, the whi te whal e is i nvested wi th dif ferent meani ngs for dif fer ent crew members t hrough the handling of m at eri al s in the novel . Simi larl y, in Hemi ngway’ s A Far ewel l to Ar ms, rain, whi ch is gener al y regarded as a sym bol of l if e (especial ly i n spri ng) , and whi ch is a mil dly annoyi ng met eor ol ogical phenomenon i n t he opening chapter, i s convert ed into a sym bol of deat h thr ough the uses t o which i t is put in the wor k. 3. Symbols i n f icti on are inanim ate obj ect s Of ten sym bol s we m et in fi ct ion ar e inanim at e objects. I n Wil li am Faulker’ s “A Rose for Emi ly,” Mi s Em il y’ s invisi bl e but per cept ible wat ch ti cki ng at he end of a gol den chain not only i ndi cat es t he passage of t ime, but suggest s that tim e passes wit hout even bei ng not iced by t he watch’s owner. The golden chai n to which i t is at ached car r ies suggest ions of wealth and aut hor it