【正文】 r ef fect (eg demonst rat ives such as thi s and that, negat ives such as not, nothing)? Gener al: Note whet her any gener al t ypes of gr am mati cal constr ucti on ar e used to speci al ef fect ( eg par at i ve or superl at ive const ructi ons, coor dinati ve or l isti ng const ructi ons, par ent het ical constr uct ions, i nter ject ions and aft er thoughts as occur i n causal speech). And see to the number of list s and coordi nat ions. Fi gur es of Speech Here we consider the f eat ures which ar e for egr ounded by vi rt ue of depart ing i n som e way f rom general norm s of m uni cat ion by m eans of the l anguage code, for exam pl e, exploi tati on of deviat ions fr om the li ngui stic code. Gr amm at ical and l exi cal schemes ( for egr ounded r epet it ons of expressi on): Ar e there any cases of f ormal and st r uct ur al repet it ion ( anaphora, par al el ism, etc) or of mir ror i mage pat ter ns (chiasmus) ? I s the r het ori cal ef ect of these one of anti thesis, r einf or cem ent , cl im ax, anti cl imax, etc? Phonol ogi cal schemes: Are there any phonol ogi cal pat er ns of rhyme, ali ter at ion, asonance, et c? Ar e t her e any sal ient rhythmi cal pat erns? Do vowels and consonant sounds pat ern or cluster i n par ti cul ar ways? How do these phonologi cal featur es inter act wi th m eaning? Tr opes ( f or egr ounded ir r egular it ies of cont ent ): Ar e there any obvious viol at ions of or neol ogi sm s fr om t he li ngui st ic code? For example, are t her e any neol ogi sms ( such as “por tentous inf ant s”) ? Ar e there any semanti c, synt act ic, phonologi cal , or gr aphological devi at ions? Such deviat ions are of ten t he cl ue to speci al i nter pr etati ons associ at ed wit h t radit ional f igur es of speech such as metaphor , metonymy, synecdoche, paradox, and ir ony. I f such t ropes occur, what kind of special i nt erpr et at ion i s involved ( for example, metaphor can be classi fi ed as per sonif ying, ani mali zing, concreti zing, synaest het ic, et c)? Context and cohesion Her e we t ake a look at features whi ch are gener al y ful ly dealt wi th i n discourse anal ysi s. Under cohesion ways in which one part of a text is l inked to anot her are considered。 and wor ds ar e also s ymbols. (P. 218. Oxf or d Concise Di ct ionary of Li ter ar y Terms. ) A symbol i s a t hi ng that suggest s mor e than i ts l iter al meaning. It exists widely even i n our dai l y l if e. Our l anguage it sel f is symbol. The dai ly gr eet ings i ndi cat e that the pasage of m uni cat ion i s open. Ri ng is a symbol of et er nit y. The s ign of cr oss i ndi cat es at onement. The Bi g Ben symbolizes London, the Gr eat Wal China. Rit ual ist ic acts are symbol ic. In church wedding t he bri de is handed over fr om the f at her t o the gr oom. Holy eati ng is symboli c of munion, bapti zing cleansi ng and rebir th. The rai si ng and loweri ng of a national fl ag cer tainl y suggest m eani ngs l ar ger than the acts t hem selves. And fi nal ly t oast ing and shaking hands on for mal or infor mal occasi ons. As r het ori cal devi ce, symbol is dif fer ent f rom metaphor, which i s li ter al ly false but fi gur ati vel y tr ue. Unl ike al egor y, whi ch repr esents abst ract term s li ke “l(fā) ove” or “tr uth, ” symbol s ar e perceptibl e objects. I n l it er atur e al most anythi ng—part icular object s, character s, set ti ng, and acti ons—can be symboli c if t he aut hor wi shes t o make it so by eit her hi nti ng or i nsi st ing that he mater ial means m ore t han it li ter al ly does. Symbol s ar e suggested t hr ough special tr eat ment such as imagery, repeti ti on, connot at ive l anguage, or other ar ti stic devi ces. I n F. Scot t Fitzgeral d’ s novel The Gr eat Gatsby, a huge pair of bespectacled eyes st ar es acr oss a wi l dness of ash heaps f rom a bil lboard advert ising t he ser vices of an oculi st . Repeatedly appear ing in t he st ory, the bespectacled eyes e to m ean m or e t han si mply t he avai labil ity of eye examinati on. A char act er i n the st or y pares it t o t he eyes of God。 i t is, rather, a symbol the poet or t he wri ter adopt s for t he pur pose of his/ her wor k, and i t is to be under st ood onl y in the context of t hat wor k. I t dif fers fr om t he kind of sym bol i l ust rated by t he fi gur e 3 because i t i s concr et e and specif ic. A poet or a wri ter uses symbols f or the sam e reason he/ she uses simi les, metaphor s, and i mages, et c: they hel p t o expr es hi s/ her meaning i n a way t hat wi l appeal t o the senses and to t he emoti ons of t he reader . Most symbols, in lit eratur e and ever yday l if e as wel , possess a tr emendous condensing power. Their f ocusing on t he rel at ionshi ps bet ween the visi bl e ( audibl e) and what they suggest can ki ndl e it i nto a si ngl e impact. Of course, in l it er ary wor ks, symbols, unl ike t hose i n ordi nar y l if e, usual ly do not “st and f or” any one meaning, nor f or anyt hing absol utely def init e。 on the other hand, t he white whal e is inves t ed wit h dif fer ent meanings for dif f er ent cr ew members t hrough t he handli ng of materi als i n the novel. Simi lar ly, in Hem ingwa y’s A Far ewel l to Ar ms, r ai n, whi ch is general y r egarded as a symbol of l if e ( especi al ly in spri ng) , and which i s a mi ldly annoying m et eor ological phenomenon in t he openi ng chapter, i s convert ed int o a sym bol of deat h t hr ough the uses t o whi ch it is put i n the wor k. 3. Symbol s in f ict ion are i nani mate obj ect s Of ten symbols we meet i n fi cti on ar e i nanim at e objects. In Wil li am Faulker’s “A Rose for Em il y, ” Mi s Emil y’s i nvi si ble but per cept ible watch ti cking at the end of a golden chai n not onl y indicates t he passage of t im e, but suggest s that ti me pases wit hout ev