【正文】 het her any gener al t ypes of gr am mati cal constr ucti on ar e used to speci al ef fect ( eg par at i ve or superl at ive const ructi ons, coor dinati ve or l isti ng const ructi ons, par ent het ical constr uct ions, i nter ject ions and aft er thoughts as occur i n causal speech). And see to the number of list s and coordi nat ions. Fi gur es of Speech Here we consider the f eat ures which ar e for egr ounded by vi rt ue of depart ing i n som e way f rom general norm s of m uni cat ion by m eans of the l anguage code, for exam pl e, exploi tati on of deviat ions fr om the li ngui stic code. Gr amm at ical and l exi cal schemes ( for egr ounded r epet it ons of expressi on): Ar e there any cases of f ormal and st r uct ur al repet it ion ( anaphora, par al el ism, etc) or of mir ror i mage pat ter ns (chiasmus) ? I s the r het ori cal ef ect of these one of anti thesis, r einf or cem ent , cl im ax, anti cl imax, etc? Phonol ogi cal schemes: Are there any phonol ogi cal pat er ns of rhyme, ali ter at ion, asonance, et c? Ar e t her e any sal ient rhythmi cal pat erns? Do vowels and consonant sounds pat ern or cluster i n par ti cul ar ways? How do these phonologi cal featur es inter act wi th m eaning? Tr opes ( f or egr ounded ir r egular it ies of cont ent ): Ar e there any obvious viol at ions of or neol ogi sm s fr om t he li ngui st ic code? For example, are t her e any neol ogi sms ( such as “por tentous inf ant s”) ? Ar e there any semanti c, synt act ic, phonologi cal , or gr aphological devi at ions? Such deviat ions are of ten t he cl ue to speci al i nter pr etati ons associ at ed wit h t radit ional f igur es of speech such as metaphor , metonymy, synecdoche, paradox, and ir ony. I f such t ropes occur, what kind of special i nt erpr et at ion i s involved ( for example, metaphor can be classi fi ed as per sonif ying, ani mali zing, concreti zing, synaest het ic, et c)? Context and cohesion Her e we t ake a look at features whi ch are gener al y ful ly dealt wi th i n discourse anal ysi s. Under cohesion ways in which one part of a text is l inked to anot her are considered。 for i nstance, t he ways sentences ar e connected. Thi s is t he int er nal or gani zati on of a text. Under cont ext, roughly the mater ial, ment al , per sonal, i nt eracti onal, soci al, insti tut ional , cul tur al , and hi st ori cal sit uat ion i n which t he di scour se is m ade, we consi der t he ext er nal r elati ons of t he li terar y text or a par t of the t ext , seeing i t as a di scourse pr esupposing a social rel at ion between i ts part ici pants (author and reader , character and char act er , char act er and r eader, etc.) , and a shari ng of knowl edge and assum pt ions by part icipants. Cohesion: Does the t ext contain l ogical or other li nks bet ween sentences ( eg coor dinati ng conj unct ions, l inking adver bial s) , or does it t end t o r epl y on i mpli ci t connect ions of meani ng? What sor t of use i s made of cr oss refer ence by pr onouns (she, i t, t hey, et c), by subst itut e for ms ( do, so, et c), or el li psi s? Is t her e any use m ade of elegant va r iati on—t he avoidance of r epet it ion by subst it ution of a descr i pt ive phrase ( as “t he ol d l awyer ” substi tutes f or the r epeti ti on of an ear li er “Mr Jones”) ? Are meani ng connect ions r ei nfor ced by r epet it ion of wor ds and phr ases, or by r epeatedly using wor ds fr om the sam e sem ant ic f ield? Cont ext : Does t he wr iter address the r eader di r ectl y, or t hrough the wor ds or thought s of some fi ct ional char act er ? What l inguisti c clues (eg f ir st person pr onouns I, m e, my, mi ne) ar e there of t he addr esser addresse r elati onship? What at ti tude does t he aut hor i mply towar ds hi s/ her subject? I f a char act er ’ s words or thoughts are represent ed, is this done by dir ect quotati on, or by some ot her met hod (eg i ndi rect speech, fr ee indi rect speech) ? Are there signi fi cant changes of styl e wi th r espect t o dif fer ent persons (nar ator or char act er ) who i s supposedly speaki ng or thinki ng the wor ds on the page? What i s the poi nt of view of the story? Ar e t he fr equent shi ft s of poi nt vi ew? If so, in whose voice is the nar at or speaki ng? Chapter Seven Symbol What i s symbol ? Symbol, in the sim pl est sense, anythi ng that st ands f or or r epresent s somet hi ng else beyond it—usual y an i dea convent ional ly associ at ed wi th i t. Obj ects like f lags and crosses can functi on sym bol ical y。 and wor ds ar e also s ymbols. (P. 218. Oxf or d Concise Di ct ionary of Li ter ar y Terms. ) A symbol i s a t hi ng that suggest s mor e than i ts l iter al meaning. It exists widely even i n our dai l y l if e. Our l anguage it sel f is symbol. The dai ly gr eet ings i ndi cat e that the pasage of m uni cat ion i s open. Ri ng is a symbol of et er nit y. The s ign of cr oss i ndi cat es at onement. The Bi g Ben symbolizes London, the Gr eat Wal China. Rit ual ist ic acts are symbol ic. In church wedding t he bri de is handed over fr om the f at her t o the gr oom. Holy eati ng is symboli c of munion, bapti zing cleansi ng and rebir th. The rai si ng and loweri ng of a national fl ag cer tainl y suggest m eani ngs l ar ger than the acts t hem selves. And fi nal ly t oast ing and shaking hands on for mal or infor mal occasi ons. As r het ori cal devi ce, symbol is dif fer ent f rom metaphor, which i s li ter al ly false but fi gur ati vel y tr ue. Unl ike al egor y, whi ch repr esents abst ract term s li ke “l(fā) ove” or “tr uth, ” symbol s ar e perceptibl e objects. I n l it er atur e al most anythi ng—part icular object s, character s, set ti ng, and acti ons—can be symboli c if t he aut hor wi shes t o make it so by eit her hi nti ng or i nsi st ing that he mater ial means m ore t