【正文】 3）布雷頓森林協(xié)議：1944—1971年，1944年，盟國的44個國家政要在新罕布什爾州的布雷頓森林，討論戰(zhàn)后的國際貨幣體系，達成《布雷頓森林協(xié)議》：各會員國統(tǒng)一采用固定匯率制；成立國際貨幣基金組織和世界銀行，它的成功標志之一是：在20世紀50年代和60年代，為國際金融市場提供了重要的世界貨幣—美元，且美元與英鎊的匯率一直保持穩(wěn)定。布雷頓森林體系l 雙掛鉤：一是美元與黃金掛鉤，一時其他國家的貨幣與美元掛鉤；l 一固定：指本國貨幣的平價一經國際貨幣基金組織確定就基本固定，不得隨意變動，只有當成員國的國際收支發(fā)生根本性不平衡時，才可變動其貨幣平價；l 上下限：指外匯市場上現(xiàn)實匯率的變動幅度不得超過平價上下1%；l 政府干預：指外匯市場上的現(xiàn)實匯率圍繞平價波動，當波動幅度超過規(guī)定的界限時，各有關國家的政府有義務采用各種干預措施，使匯率的波動幅度控制在平價規(guī)定的范圍內。第二節(jié) 國際技術貿易一、國際技術貿易概述國際技術貿易：是不同國家的企業(yè)、經濟組織或個人之間按照一般商業(yè)條件將技術的使用權進行轉讓的一種貿易行為。技術商品及其特征技術的定義技術：指人們在生產活動中制造某種產品、應用某種生產方法或提供某種服務的系統(tǒng)知識。技術的特征技術的特征：無形性、系統(tǒng)性、周期性和商品性（其中，商品性又包括：使用價值的間接性、使用價值的共享性、使用價值的延展性和使用價值的不滅性）國際技術貿易的特點（1）發(fā)達國際在國際技術市場上占有統(tǒng)治地位；（2）軟件技術在國際技術貿易中的比重日益提高；（3）發(fā)達國家的跨國公司控制著國際技術貿易；（4）國際技術市場上的競爭日益激烈。（一）許可證貿易國際商務許可證貿易概念許可證貿易：又稱許可貿易，是指技術的提供方與接受方之間簽訂的，允許接受方對提供方所擁有的技術，享有使用權及產品的制造權和銷售權，而不是技術的所有權。l 按許可方授權大小劃分為 1)普通許可； 2)排他許可； 3)獨占許可； 4)分許可。因而比國內貿易要復雜的多。因此，在此方面具有一定的知識是十分必要的，這既有益于企業(yè)的發(fā)展，又有益于個人的進步With the development of economic globalization, few people or panies can enterprises and personal advancement ，承包生產和“交鑰匙”工程。International consumption or resale in ，國際許可和特許經營有時也是進入國際市場的一種方式Besides trade and investment, international licensing and franchising are some times taken as a means of entering a foreign market.（二），區(qū)別在于前者強調的是生產要素的所屬權而后者著重于進行生產的國家。China with an annual per capita ine of over $1100 is a middle ine country though it was a low ine country just a few years ，周圍還有其他應特別關注的市場，如亞洲四小虎，東盟國家，俄羅斯等國，這些國家都具有前景看好的市場潛力，能為中國提供很好的商機。The past decades witnessed increasingly growing importance of regional economic 、政府開支、企業(yè)策略等方面保持一致，而且還應適用同一的貨幣。The European Commission is one of the governing organs of the is the body which puts proposals to the Council of Ministers for decision and sees that the members carry out their duties under the treaty 4APEC建立與在澳大利亞首都堪培拉召開的一次部長級會議上。APEC was set up at the Ministerial Meeting held in the Australia capital Canberra attened by 12members of Australia，the united states，canada，japan，republic of korea，new zealand and six ASEAN ，它是由美國、加拿大和墨西哥于1991年建立的。Economic globalization is giving new impetus and opportunities to world economic development and meanwhile making the various economies more and more interdependent and interactive 、控制和經營資產的商業(yè)組織。An MNE may also have various regional or operational headquarters, in addition to international headquarters 。Although the daytoday running of corporate operations may be decentralized to the affiliate MNCS, the major decisions, such at those on corporate goals and new investments are made by the parent pany ，經濟全球化已成為世界經濟發(fā)展中的一個客觀趨勢。In the plex economic world, no country can be pletely selfsufficient ，出現(xiàn)了另一個刺激貿易的因素，即國際專業(yè)化。According to the theory on parative advantage both trade partners can benefit from ，一個國家可以通過自己的行為發(fā)展某種特定的比較利益。The idea of parative advantage has bee the cornerstone of modern thinking on international trade，只有當一個國家生產的某一商品對另一個國家具有絕對優(yōu)勢時，貿易才會發(fā)生。The cost of a product will decrease with the expansion of production scale ，即使完全的專業(yè)化在經濟上有利，也可能永遠不會發(fā)生。Quotas or quantitative restrictions are the most mon form of nontariff barriers ，復雜的，往往是有形貿易和無形貿易的混合。Trade will be based not on difference in the production capabilities of the two countries but on different consumption preferences ，典型的例子是關稅和配額。For strategic or domestic reasons, a country may continue to produce goods for which it does not have an advantage 。Packing should be made according to the requirement of most cases, the seller knows clearly the particular type of packing required for transporting the goods safely to ，應通知買方在賣方將貨物啟運之時或之前安排驗貨。In many cases, the buyer shall be notified to go through the inspection of goods at or before the time of otherwise specified, the buyer is supposed to undertake the charges of inspection thus incurred for his own ，這類可轉讓單據(jù)用起來非常方便。The 2000 revision of Incoterms took account of the spread of customsfree zones, the increased use of electronic munication, and the changes in transport practices ，買賣雙方的信任就會下降可能會嚴重到引起法律糾紛的地步。If, when drawing up their contract, buyer and seller have some monly understood rules to specifically refer to , they can be sure of defining their respective responsibilities simply and safely(八)，未能履行合同義務的一方可能受到起訴，并被強制做出賠償。Oral business negotiations refer to facetoface discussions or those conducted through international trunk calls ，它對發(fā)出詢盤的人無約束力。在規(guī)定的時間之前，或在被對方接受或拒絕之前發(fā)盤一直是有效的。A counteroffer is a refusal of the offer which will be invalid and unbinding once a counteroffer is made、付款條件、裝運時間或其他條款而提出。objectives in these countries As counter trade often takes place in less developed economies and in centrally planned economies, it is often related with policy ，反向貿易指的是各種貨物和服務的直接交換。Another important difference is that a buyback deal usually stretches over a longer period of time the a counter purchase deal ，由于使用貨幣及市場手段，貨物的買與賣是分別進行的。Despite all its advantage, counter trade can be very risky business、寄售、租賃貿易、代理等。Counter trade has bee the generic term to describe a set of crossborder contracts that link a seller’s exports to imports from the buyer(十)，因為總存在對不履約的可能。Various methods of payment have been developed to cope with different situations in international trade，匯票是對銀行是顧客的支付命令。Documents against payment at sight requires immediate payment by the importer to get hold of the documents，即期付款交單比遠期付款交單有利，付款交單比承兌交單有利。In international trade it is almost impossible to match payment with the physical delivery of the good。Credits had substantial development after the First World War，要么因為對開證行不完全信任，出口商有時可能需要保兌的信用證。Letters of credit are varied in form, length, language and stipulations。It does not guarantee that the goods purchased will be those invoiced or shipped，銀行對于貨物是否符合合同不承擔法律責任。Letters of credit are classified into different types according to their function, form, and mechanism，而在商品貿易中一般使用跟單信用證付款。In the case of sight credits, payment can be made promptly upon presentation of draft and impeccable shipping documents，那么這種信用證即為可轉讓信用證。The letter of cr