【正文】 he ext er nal r elati ons of t he li ter ar y t ext or a part of the t ext , seeing i t as a di scourse pr esupposing a social r el ation bet ween its par ti ci pant s (author and reader , char acter and char act er, char act er and r eader, etc. ), and a shar ing of knowl edge and assum ptions by part ici pants. Cohesi on: Does the t ext cont ai n l ogi cal or other li nks bet ween sentences ( eg coor dinati ng conj uncti ons, l inking adver bials) , or does it t end t o r epl y on im plici t connect ions of meani ng? What sor t of use is made of cr oss r eference by pronouns (she, i t, they, et c), by substi tut e for ms ( do, so, et c) , or el li psi s? I s t her e any use m ade of elegant var iati on—the avoidance of r epet it ion by subst it ut ion of a descr ipt ive phrase (as “the ol d lawyer ” substi tutes f or the r epeti ti on of an ear li er “Mr Jones”)? Ar e m eaning connect ions rei nforced by r epet it ion of words and phrases, or by repeatedly using wor ds fr om t he sam e semanti c f ield? Cont ext : Does t he wri ter addres the r eader di rectl y, or t hr ough the wor ds or thought s of some f ict ional character? What li ngui st ic clues ( eg fi rst per son pr onouns I , me, m y, mine) ar e t her e of the addr eser addr esee rel at ionshi p? What ati tude does the author impl y t owar ds his/her subj ect? If a character’ s wor ds or t houghts ar e repr esented, i s thi s done by di rect quot at ion, or by some ot her method (eg i ndir ect speech, f ree i ndi rect speech) ? Ar e there si gni fi cant changes of st yle wi th respect to di f erent per sons ( nar rat or or char act er ) who i s supposedly speaki ng or thi nki ng the wor ds on the page? What i s the poi nt of view of the stor y? Ar e t he fr equent shi ft s of poi nt vi ew? If so, in whose voice i s the nar at or speaking? Chapter Seven Symbol What i s sym bol ? Symbol, in the sim pl est sense, anythi ng that st ands f or or r epresent s somet hi ng else beyond it—usual y an i dea convent ional ly associ at ed wi th i t. Obj ect s like f lags and crosses can functi on sym bol ical y。t ypes of sentence are used, what is t hei r functi on? Sent ence plexit y: Do sent ences on whole have a simpl e or a pl ex str uct ur e? What is t he aver age sentence lengt h? Does pl exity var y str ikingl y fr om one sentence t o another? I s plexit y mainl y due to ( i) coordi nat ion, (i i) subor dinati on, ( i i) j uxt aposit ion of clauses or of other equi val ent str uct ures? In what part s of the text does pl exi ty t end to occur ? clause types: What t ypes of clauses are favored—r elati ve cl auses, adverbial clauses, or di f erent types of nomi nal clauses? Ar e non f init e for ms monl y used, and i f so, of what types ar e t hey ( inf ini tive, i ng f or m, ed for m, ver bles st ructur e) ? What i s their f uncti on? Clause st ructur e: I s t her e anyt hi ng signif icant about cl ause elements (eg f requency of objects, adverbial s, plements。 of tr ansit ive or i nt ransit ive verb constr uct ions) ? Ar e there any unusual order ings (i nit ial adverbi al s, f ront ing of object or plement, etc) ? Do speci al ki nds of clause constr uct ion occur (such as t hose wi th prepar ator y it or there) ? Noun phrases: Ar e they r el at ively si mple or plex? Wher e does t he pl exi t y li e ( in pr em odi fi cat ion by adjecti ves, nouns, et c, or i n post modif icati on by preposi ti on by preposi ti onal phrases, relat ive clauses, etc)? Ver b phrases: Ar e there any signif icant depart ures f rom the use of the simpl e past tense? For example, not ice occur r ences and f unct ions of the pr esent tense, of the progr essive aspect, of the per fect aspect , of m odal auxi li ar ies. ot her phr ase t ypes: Is t her e anyt hing t o be sai d about other phrases t ypes, such as preposi ti onal phrases, adver b phrases, adj ect ive phrases? Word cl asses: Having alr eady considered maj or wor d cl asses, we may consi der m inor word cl ases (eg f unct ional wor ds), such as pr eposit ions, conjunct ions, pr onouns, det er mi ner s, auxil iari es, int erj ecti ons. Ar e par ti cular words of these types used f or par ti cul ar ef fect (eg demonst rat ives such as thi s and that, negat ives such as not, nothing)? Gener al: Note whet her any gener al t ypes of gr ammati cal constr uction ar e used t o speci al ef fect ( eg par ati ve or super lat ive const ructi ons, coor dinati ve or l isti ng const ructi ons, par ent het ical constr uct ions, i nter ject ions and aft er thoughts as occur i n causal speech). And see t o the number of l ists and coordinat ions. Fi gur es of Speech Here we consider the f eat ur es which ar e for egr ounded by vir t ue of depar ti ng in som e way fr om general nor ms of muni cati on by means of the language code, f or exampl e, exploit ati on of deviati ons fr om t he li ngui st ic code. Gr ammat ical and l exi cal schemes ( for egr ounded r epeti ti ons of expressi on) : Ar e there any cases of f or mal and st ructur al r epet it ion ( anaphora, par alel ism, etc) or of m ir ror i mage pat terns ( chi asm us) ? Is t he rhetor ical ef f ect of these one of anti thesi s, r einfor cem ent , cl imax, ant icl imax, et c? Phonologi cal schemes: Ar e t her e any phonol ogi cal pat er ns of rhyme, al li terat ion, assonance, etc? Ar e t her e any sal ient r hythmi cal pat er ns? Do vowels and consonant sounds pat er n or cluster in par ti cul ar ways ? How do these phonological featur es i nteract wit h meaning? Tr opes ( foregr ounded ir r egular it ies of cont ent ): Ar e there any obvious viol at ions of or neol ogi sm s fr om t he li ngui st ic code? For example, are t her e any neol ogi sms (such as “por tentous inf ant s”) ? Ar e there any semanti c, synt act ic, phonologi cal , or gr aphological devi at i ons? Such devi at ions are of ten t