【正文】 es, can be really the reading of an article or essay but the hearer is not in the same situation as the reader where he/she can turn back a page to check his/her understanding. Hence their repeating of the main points in a slightly different way and their manipulation of prosodic and paralinguistic features for the spoken mode. c) Texts written not necessarily to be spoken with no relation to the spoken mode such as a telephone book or a dictionary may be described as written to be read. d) Texts written not necessarily to be spoken but with a relationship with the spoken mode such as dialogue in a novel, may be categorized as written to be read as speech (as if heard)。 AmE: 每項(xiàng)具體例子要看(1) In Vocabulary(2) In Grammar① The use of present perfect (BrE) or past tense (AmE)② The use of “have” or “have got” to indicate possession③ The use of “got” (BrE) or “gotten” (AmE)④ The use of different prepositions⑤ The use of different expressions(3) In Spelling(4) In Pronunciation (RP=Received Pronunciation GA=General American)1Spoken English amp。 CanadaESL：Mexico；The Philippines。 formal writings, expository and argumentative prose, public speech)British/American EnglishBritish English范圍：EFL（mother tongue）: Britain。 d) the decreasing “rallentando”.Function: Generally speaking, a quick tempo indicates excitement, surprise, agreement, happiness, indignation, whereas a slow tempo usually indicates confusion, emphasis, disagreement, hesitation, sadness, tiredness, low spirit or disappointment, etc.Graphological Items ——the study of writing system of a languageGraphological level——the expression or realization of language in its writing system(1) Punctuation ( the dash破折號(hào), the colon冒號(hào), the exclamation mark感嘆號(hào))；各自用處效果(2) Capitalization(3) Italics 斜體(4) Paragraphing（分段）：Paragraphing refers to the way in which a text is divided into paragraphs. It is a device to reveal the relational structure in a text, the organization of the content.各自用處效果Lexical Items(1) General or Specific(2) AngloSaxon or Latinate(3) Other Lexical ItemsSyntactic/Grammatical Items(1) Clause TypesClause: A clause forms a sentence or part of a sentence. It is a group of words which form a grammatical unit and which contains a subject and a finite verb, often functioning as a noun, adjective or adverb.1) In terms of the clause constituents, there are 5 basic types:2) In terms of the structure of the verb phrases (if any) in a clause:① Finite clauses are clauses in which the first or the only verb phrase is a finite form. . He finished his work before leaving the classroom.② Nonfinite clauses（非限定從句）are clauses whose verb phrase is nonfinite, . an –ing participle. He finished his work before leaving the classroom.③ Verbless clauses（無(wú)動(dòng)詞分句）are clauses which contain no verb element, .: Hundreds of people were killed in the fire, many of them children.3) In terms of functions in a sentence:①Independent clause, not subordinate to another clause. . I am a teacher. ②Subordinate clause is a clause which forms part of another clause as its element, or as constituent of a phrase within a clause.a) nominal clause（名詞性從句）. What he said is true.b) relative clause（關(guān)系從句）functioning as post modifiers of a noun phrase.. People who smoke annoy me.c) parative clause, than, as d) adverbial clauses denoting time, place, reason, etc.(2) Sentence TypesSentence: A sentence is, grammatically, the largest unit of grammatical organization within which parts of speech and grammatical classes are to function.1) In terms of plexity or the number of constituent clauses:① Simple sentence consists of a single independent clause.② Multiple sentence consists of more than one clause.a) Compound sentence（復(fù)合句）consists of two or more independent clauses with no dependent clauses. .: The storm is over, but the ground is still wet.b) Complex sentence（復(fù)雜句）consists of one independent clause and one or more dependent clause, .: Although the storm is over, the ground is still wet. c) Compoundplex sentence consists of two or more independent clauses, one being pound, and at least one plex dependent clause, .:Although the storm is over, the ground is still wet, and we cannot go out for a walk.2) In terms of grammaticality: ①M(fèi)ajor sentence is a sentence (simple or multiple) which conforms to the regular patterns of clause structures. (formal in style)②Minor sentence does not conform to the regular clause patterns,.: Oh, if I were you!All aboard!3) In terms of function:①Declarative sentence（陳述句）②Interrogative sentence（疑問句）a) General questionb) Special questionc) Alternative questiond) Disjunctive question（反義疑問句）③Imperative sentence（命令、祈使、要求）④Exclamatory sentence（感嘆句）4) In terms of sentence length:①Short sentence（casual, easy, informal, emphatic, eyecatching, to the point, effective, express a concept）② long sentence 5) In terms of the beauty of structure or emphasis:① Periodic sentence（圓周句）is a sentence which suspends the pletion of the main thought until(near) the end, .:Every time a Cooper person is in peril, and absolute silence is worth four dollars a minute, he is sure to step on a dry twig.②Loose sentence（松散句）in contrast pletes the main thought well before the end.③ Balanced sentence contains two distinct halves or parts, each of about the same length and importance, .:In Plato’s opinion man was made for philosophy。 b) the slow “l(fā)endo”。 b) loose and drawled syllables。 e) The level pitch。 c) The fallrise pitch。 b) silent pauseFunction: P23(3) Pitch: T