【文章內(nèi)容簡介】 s towards pletion. Figure 22 illustrates the idea that the cost of changes and correcting errors typically increases substantially as the project approaches pletion. Figure 21. Typical Cost and Staffing Levels Across the Project Life Cycle Figure 22. Stakeholder Influence Over Time Within the context of the generic life cycle structure, a project manager may determine the need for more effective control over certain highlevel work deliverables. Large and plex projects in particular may require this additional level of control. In such instances, the work carried out to plete the project39。s objective may benefit from being divided into phases. Relationship to a Product39。s Life Cycle Product life cycle is a collection of generally sequential, nonoverlapping product phases whose name and number are determined by the manufacturing and control need of the organization. The last product life cycle phase for a product is generally the product39。s retirement. Generally, a project life cycle is contained within one or more product life cycles. Care should be taken to distinguish the project life cycle from the product life cycle. All projects have a purpose or objective, but in those cases where the objective is a service or result, there may be no product life cycle involved. When the output of the project is related to a product, there are many possible relationships. For instance, the development of a new product could be a project on its own. Alternatively, an existing product might benefit from a project to add new functions or features, or a project might be created to develop a new model. Many facets of the product life cycle lend themselves to being run as small projects, for example: performing a feasibility study, conducting market research, running an advertising campaign, installing a product, holding focus groups, trialing a product in a test market, etc. In each of these examples the project life cycle would differ from the product life cycle. Since one product may have many projects associated with it, additional efficiencies may be gained by managing all related projects collectively. For instance, a number of separate projects may be related to the development of a new automobile. Each project may be distinct, but still contributes a key deliverable necessary to bring the automobile to market. Oversight of all projects by a higher authority could significantly increase the likelihood of success. Managing a group of projects in a coordinated way, to obtain benefits not available from managing them separately, is within the scope of program management. Project Phases Project phases are a collection of logically related project activities, usually culminating in the pletion of a major deliverable. Project phases are mainly pleted sequentially, but can overlap in some project situations. Phases can be subdivided into subphases and then into ponents. A project phase is an element of a project life cycle. A project phase is not a project management process group. Many projects can be effectively carried out as a single phase. Large or plex projects may be divided into separate phases. Project phases are not the same as the divisions of the generic life cycle structure described in Section . Regardless of the number of phases prising a project, all phases have similar characteristics: ? Phases are generally sequential and involve some form of transfer or handoff of the work product produced as the phase deliverable. ? The work has a distinct focus that differs from any other phase. This often involves different organizations and different skill sets. ? Repeating project management process groups within each phase adds value by providing an extra degree of control necessary to effectively manage the project. ? The end of a phase represents a natural point to reassess the effort underway and to change or terminate the project if necessary. These are referred to as phase exits, phase gates, decision gates, or kill points. Although many projects may have similar phase names with similar deliverables, few are identical. Some will have only one phase, as shown in Figure 23. Other projects may have six or more. Figure 24 shows an example of a project with three phases. Note that different phases typically have a different duration or length. Figure 23. Example of a SinglePhase Project Figure 24. Example of a ThreePhase Project There is no single way to define the ideal structure for a project. Although industry mon practices will often lead to the use of a preferred structure, projects in the same industryor even in the same organizationmay have significant variation. Some organizations have established policies that standardize all projects under a single model, while others allow the project management team to choose the most appropriate model for their individual project. For instance, one organization may treat a feasibility study as routine preproject work, another may treat it as the first phase of a project, and a third might treat the feasibility study as a separate, standalone project. Likewise, one project team might divide a project into two phases where a different project team might have chosen to manage all the work as a single phase. Much depends on the nature of the specific project and the style of the project team or organization. .1 Project Governance Across the Life Cycle Project governance is a management approach taken to support project delivery. Ultimately, governance provides a prehensive, uniform method of controlling the