【正文】 gregates of stainable substances, usually proteins. They typically represent sites of viral multiplication in a bacterium or a eukaryotic cell and usually consist of viral capsid proteins. Types of insect viruses（形成包涵體的昆蟲病毒類型）: NPV（核型多角體病毒）, CPV （質型多角體病毒）和GV（顆粒型病毒）。Factors affecting microbial growth:} Temperature。（見PPT）根據固氮微生物同植物的關系和固氮的環(huán)境，一般將固氮作用分為3個類型：自生固氮：微生物獨自生活時進行固氮。寄生：一種微生物在另一種微生物細胞中或表面，從后者獲得養(yǎng)料，引起病害或死亡。傳染（infection): 指外源或內源性病原體突破其宿主的三道免疫防線（指機械防御、非特異性免疫和特異性免疫）后，在宿主的特定部位定植、生長繁殖或（和）產生酶及毒素，從而引起一系列病理生理的過程。 （3） 免疫穩(wěn)定（immunologic serveillance)。 免疫活性細胞（immunologically petent cell），特指能特異地識別抗原，即能接受抗原的刺激，并隨后進行分化、增殖和產生抗體或淋巴因子，以發(fā)揮特異性免疫應答的一類細胞群。 不完全抗原（inplete antigen)：又稱為半抗原（hapten)，指缺乏免疫原性而具有免疫反應性的物質。根據Ig重鏈血清學的不同；Ig的型別（type)和亞型（subtype) 224。167。11 / 11。167?？乖贵w反應的特點是特異性、可逆性、比例性和階段性和條件依賴性。 半抗原的種類：復合半抗原和簡單半抗原。免疫應答（immune response)：是指一類發(fā)生在活生物體內的特異性免疫的系列反應過程。具有能擴大和增強抗體的“補助”作用。 人畜共患病（Zoonotic disease)：能夠在人類與其他脊椎動物間發(fā)生自然轉移的傳染病。根瘤菌同豆科植物的共生——根瘤；真菌同植物的共生——菌根。共生固氮：微生物只有同植物共生時才能表現(xiàn)固氮活性。} Oxygen。 chemotrophs（化能營養(yǎng)型）obtain energy from the oxidation of chemical pounds (either organic or inorganic).The large majority of microorganisms thus far studied are either photolithotrophic autotrophs （光能自養(yǎng)型）or chemoorganotrophic heterotrophs（化能異養(yǎng)型）A substance can be transported across the cell membrane in one of three ways, known as simple diffusion（簡單擴散），facilitated diffusion （協(xié)助擴散）and active transport（主動運輸）。2, Penetration。有性孢子的種類和比較（見PPT），無性孢子的種類和比較（見PPT），有性繁殖的三個過程。⑤ Containing chitin in the cell wall。Genus224。芽孢的結構：Endosporeforming process (芽孢的形成過程)鞭毛（flagellum）的結構分為基體、鉤形鞘和螺旋絲。 instead it seems to act as a permeability barrier preventing loss of crystal violet. During the procedure the bacteria are first stained with crystal violet and next treated with iodine to promote dye retention. When grampositive bacteria then are decolorized with ethanol, the alcohol is thought to shrink the pores of the thick peptidoglycan. Thus the dyeiodine plex is retained during the short decolorization step and the bacteria remain purple. In contrast, gramnegative peptidoglycan is very thin, not as highly crosslinked, and has larger pores. Alcohol treatment also may extract enough lipid from the gramnegative wall to increase its porosity further. For these reasons, alcohol more readily removes the purple crystal violetiodine plex from gramnegative bacteria. 簡而言之，不同細菌的染色差異（G+或G）是由于細胞壁化學成分的差異而引起了物理特性（脫色能力）的不同。 grampositive bacteria retain the crystal violet, whereas gramnegative bacteria lose their crystal violet and bee colorless. Finally, the smear is counterstained with a simple, basic dye different in color from crystal violet. Safranin, the most mon counterstain, colors gramnegative bacteria pink to red and leaves grampositive bacteria dark purple. 6, The Mechanism of Gram Staining （革蘭氏染色的機制）Although several explanations have been given for the Gramstain reaction results, it seems likely that the difference between grampositive and gramnegative bacteria is due to the physical nature of their cell walls. If the cell wall is removed from grampositive bacteria, they bee gram negative. The peptidoglycan itself is not stained。Endospore(芽孢)：某些細菌在其生長發(fā)育后期，在細胞內形成一個圓形或橢圓形、厚壁、含水量極低、抗逆性極強的休眠體，稱為芽孢。Family224。④Typically forming asexual and sexual reproductive spores。 (5) Deuteromycota（半知菌亞門，高等真菌）真菌的分類（Ainsworth分類系統(tǒng)）依據: 橫隔有無，無性孢子，有性孢子，典型的代表微生物種類，自己列表。 在溶源細胞內的噬菌體核酸稱為原噬菌體（或前噬菌體）.Replication cycles of virulent phage(毒性噬菌體的生活周期): 1, Adsorption (attachment)。Growth factors（生長因子）：Organic pounds required because they are essential cell ponents or precursors of such ponents and cannot be synthesized by the organism are called growth factors.There are three major classes of growth factors:} (1) amino acids, } (2) purines（嘌呤） and pyrimidines（嘧啶）, } (3) vitamins. Nutritional Types of Microorganisms：Microorganisms can be classified as either heterotrophs (異養(yǎng)型）or autotrophs （自養(yǎng)型）with respect to their preferred source of carbon. Phototrophs （光能營養(yǎng)型） use light as their energy source。} pH。聯(lián)合固氮：微生物生活在植物根的表面和黏質鞘套內，有的進入根皮層細胞之間，但不形成特殊結構。捕食：一種微生物直接吞食另一種微生物的現(xiàn)象。傳染?。↖nfectious disease): 是一類由活病原體的大量繁殖所引起，可從某一個宿主個體直接或間接傳播到同種或異種宿主另一些個體的疾病。 補體（plement)：補體是正常人體或高等動物血清中的一組非特異性血清蛋白。種類包括：T淋巴細胞、B淋巴細胞、K細胞、NK細胞、N細胞、D細胞和單核吞噬細胞。如：大多數(shù)多糖、類脂、核酸及其降解產物以及某些藥物等。根據Ig輕鏈血清學的不同；抗原抗體之間的結合力涉及靜電引力、范德華引力、氫鍵和疏水作用力。 3, Microorganism as fo