【正文】
ady flowing through the bottom N section will promote a flow of current through the transistor bottomtotop. By controlling the degree of doping in the different layers of the transistor during manufacture, this ability to conduct current through the second circuit through a resistor can be very marked. Effectively, when the bottom half is forward biased, the bottom section acts as a generous source of free electrons (and because it emits electrons it is called the emitter). These are collected readily by the top half, which is consequently called the collector, but the actual amount of current which flows through this particular circuit is controlled by the bias applied at the center layer, which is called the base. Effectively, therefore, there are two separate 39。can39。器件之間參數(shù)的分散性和溫度漂移給設(shè)計(jì)工作增加了難度 。在電路和電子學(xué)教科書中,也說(shuō)明了如何用運(yùn)算放大器建立簡(jiǎn)單的濾波電路。運(yùn)算放大器是差分裝置。也就是說(shuō)運(yùn)算放大器的輸出是一個(gè)理想的電壓源。注意,如果 A=100,000, 而 (R1 +R2) /R1 =10,那么為此優(yōu)點(diǎn)而付出的代價(jià)是用一個(gè)具有 100,000 倍電壓增益的器件產(chǎn)生一個(gè)具有 10倍增益的放大器。晶體管以類似的方式形成,就象帶有公共中間層、背靠背的兩個(gè)二極管,公共中間層是以對(duì)等的方式向兩個(gè)邊緣層滲入而得,因此中間層比兩個(gè)邊緣層或邊緣區(qū)要薄的多。例如在簡(jiǎn)易收音機(jī)中用晶體管代替二極管作為檢波器。 因此,當(dāng)晶體管外加電壓接連正確(圖 12B3)后工作時(shí),實(shí)際上存在兩個(gè)獨(dú)立的 “ 工作 ” 電路。雖然基極和發(fā)射極是公共路徑,但這兩個(gè)電路實(shí)際上是獨(dú)立的,就基極電路的極性而言,基極和晶體管的集電極之間相當(dāng)于一個(gè)反向偏置二極管,因此沒(méi)有電流從基極電路流到集電極電路。也就是說(shuō),發(fā)射極相對(duì)于基極和集 電極來(lái)說(shuō)極性總是負(fù)的(在 NPN型晶體管中, “ N”代表負(fù))。例如, TO92 的三個(gè)管腳排成一條直線,這條直線與半圓型 “ 外罩 ” 的切面平行,觀看 TO92 的底部時(shí),將切面沖右,從上往下讀,管腳的排序?yàn)?1, 2, 3。 。實(shí)際上,這些都是集成電路 (ICs),用和晶體管相同的外殼包裝的,只是看起來(lái)像晶體管。 盡管現(xiàn)在生產(chǎn)的晶體管有上千種不同的型號(hào),但晶體管各種外殼形狀的數(shù)量相對(duì)有限,并盡量用一種簡(jiǎn)單碼 TO(晶體管外形)后跟一個(gè)數(shù)字為統(tǒng)一標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。這也就是說(shuō)電壓極性必須和晶體管的類型相匹配。(注意:本定義僅適用于發(fā)射極是兩個(gè)電路的公共端時(shí) 被稱為共發(fā)射極連接。 可以 給二極管電路加正向偏置電壓或反向偏置電壓。 PNP 或 NPN被用于描述晶體管的兩個(gè)基本類型。 對(duì)各種運(yùn)算放大器電路都可作類似的數(shù)學(xué)分析,但是這比較麻煩,并且存在一些非常有用的捷徑,其涉及目前我們提出的運(yùn)算放大器兩個(gè)定律應(yīng)用。首先,注意到在正極輸入的電壓 U +等于電源電壓,即 U+ =US。換句話說(shuō),輸出電壓是A乘以兩輸入間的電位差。 理想運(yùn)算放大器的符號(hào)如圖 12A1所示。運(yùn)算放大器是一個(gè)集成電路,在它內(nèi)部有許多電阻、晶體管等元件。triangle39。 circuits when a transistor is working with correctly connected polarities (Fig. 12B3). One is the loop formed by the bias voltage supply enpassing the emitter and base. This is called the base circuit or input circuit. The second is the circuit formed by the collector voltage supply and all three elements of the transistor. This is called the collector circuit or output circuit. (Note: this description applies only when the emitter connection is mon to both circuits ~ known as mon emitter configuration.) This is the most widely used way of connecting transistors, but there are, of course, two other alternative configurations mon base and mon emitter. But, the same principles apply in the working of the transistor in each case. The particular advantage offered by this circuit is that a relatively small base current can control and instigate a very much larger collector current (or, more correctly, a small input power is capable of producing a much larger output power). In other words, the transistor works as an amplifier. With this mode of working the baseemitter circuit is the input side。 or 39。 to produce a predominance of electrons or mobile negative charges (Ntype)。working39。 with the three leads emerging in triangular pattern from the bottom. Looking at the base, the upper lead in the 39。設(shè)計(jì)運(yùn)算放大器或 OpAmp 的目的就是使它盡可能的減少對(duì)其內(nèi)部參數(shù)的依賴性、最大程度地簡(jiǎn)化設(shè)計(jì)工作。作為構(gòu)建運(yùn)算放大器集成電路的積木 — 晶體管,將在下篇課文中進(jìn)行討論。差分的意思是:相對(duì)于接零管腳的輸出電壓可由下式表示 U0=A( U+U) (12A1) 式中 A 是運(yùn)算放大器的增益, U+ 和 U是輸入電壓。 我們現(xiàn)在利用這些特性就可以分析圖 12A2所示的特殊放大器電路了。從某種意義上說(shuō),使用運(yùn)算放大器是以 “ 能量 ” 為代價(jià)來(lái)?yè)Q取 “ 控制 ” 。 PNP 或 NPN (圖 12B1)這兩種結(jié)構(gòu)顯然是可能的。在這種情況下,其所起的作用和二極管所起的作用一模一樣。一個(gè)是由偏置電壓源、發(fā)射極和基極形成的回路,它被稱為基極電路或輸入電路;第二個(gè)是由集電極電壓源和晶體管的三個(gè)區(qū)共同形成的電路,它被稱為集電極電路或輸出電路。 要讓電路正 常工作,當(dāng)然,加在基極電路和集電極電路的電壓極性必須正確(基極電路加正向偏置電壓,集電極電源的連接要保證公共端(發(fā)射極)的極性與兩個(gè)電壓源的極性相同)。這一點(diǎn)也可以從 NPN 型晶體管符號(hào)中發(fā)射極上相反方向的箭頭看出來(lái),即,電流從基極流出。 對(duì)于 TO92 子系列 a (TO92a): 1=發(fā)射極 2=集電極 3=基極 對(duì)于 TO92 子系列 b (TO92b): 1=發(fā)射極 2=基極 3=集電極 更容易使人搞亂的是一些晶體管只有兩個(gè)管腳(第三個(gè)管腳已在里邊和外殼連接);一些和晶體管的外形很像的外殼底部有三個(gè)以上的管腳