【正文】 place very slowly so that a coarse pearlite is cooling is not essential forprocess annealing, since any cooling rate from temperatures below the lowest transformation temperature will result in the same microstructure and annealingProcess annealing consists of heating steel to a temperature just below the lowest transformation temperature for a short makes the steel easier to heat treatment is monly applied in the sheet and wire industries, and the temperatures generally used are from 550 to The twostage heat treating process of quenching and tempering is designed to produce high strength steel capable of resisting shock and deformation without the other hand, the annealing process is intended to make steel easier to deform or manufacturing steel products, machining and severe bending operations are often tempered steel may not cut or bend very easi1y and annealing is often effect of tempering may be il1ustrated as the head of a hammer were quenched to a fully martensitic structure, it probably would crack after the first few during manufacture of the hammer imparts shock resistance with only a slight decrease in is acplished by heating a quenched part to some point below the transformation temperature, and holding it at this temperature for an hour or more, depending on its steels are tempered between 205176。sifi39。The lower heating value is defined here as the higher heating value(HHV)minus the energy necessary to evaporate the water that is created by the bustion of the hydrogen in the fuel and minus the energy needed to evaporate the moisture that was already part of the fuel before value熱值Evaporate [?39。以下是在不同國(guó)家使用的不同規(guī)范的部分摘要：澳大利亞澳大利亞鍋爐與壓力容器標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，SAA鍋爐標(biāo)準(zhǔn)（AS1200系列）：AS1210，非火加熱類壓力容器和分類1H，改進(jìn)后的設(shè)計(jì)與制造壓力容器，澳大利亞協(xié)會(huì)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。其中的一些是關(guān)于特種設(shè)備的。1951年，最后一部獨(dú)立的APIASME規(guī)范得以頒布。1915年2月13日，首部ASME鍋爐法規(guī)正式頒布。1865年4月27日發(fā)生在密西西比河上的一艘名為Sultana的輪船的火管鍋爐爆炸事故，導(dǎo)致輪船在20分鐘內(nèi)沉沒，船上載著的1500名從內(nèi)戰(zhàn)中準(zhǔn)備回家的士兵死亡。and others relate to care and inspection of installed following Sections specifically relate to boiler and pressure vessel design and ⅠPower Boilers(1 volume)Section ⅢDivision 1Nuclear Power Plant Components(7 volumes)Division 2Concrete Reactor Vessels and Containment(1 volume)Code CaseCase 1 Components in Elevated Temperature service(in Nuclear Code N47Case book)Section Ⅳ Heating Boilers(1 volume)Section ⅧDivision 1 Pressure Vessels(1 volume)Division 2 Alternative Rules for Pressure Vessels(1 volume)Section Ⅹ FiberglassReinforced Plastic Pressure Vessels(1 volume)A new edition of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code is issued on July 1 every three years and new addenda are issued every six months on January 1 and July new edition of the code bees mandatory when it addenda are permissive at the date of issuance and bee mandatory six months after that Pressure Vessel CodesIn addition to the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, which is used worldwide, many other pressure vessel codes have been legally adopted in various often occurs when vessels are designed in one country, built in another country, and installed in still a different this worldwide construction this is often the following list is a partial summary of some of the various codes used in different countries:AustraliaAustralian Code for Boilers and Pressure Vessels, SAA Boiler Code(Series AS1200): AS1210, Unfired Pressure Vessels and Class 1 H, Pressure Vessels of Advanced Design and Construction, Standards Association of Code Calculation Rules for Unfired Pressure Vessels, Syndicat National de la Chaudronnerie et de la Tuyauterie Industrielle(SNCT), Paris, KingdomBritish Code , British Standards Institution, London, Pressure Vessel Code, Ministry of LABOR, PUBLISHED BY Japan Boiler Association, Tokyo, Japan。首部有關(guān)鍋爐設(shè)計(jì)和建設(shè)的法律與1907年8月30日在馬薩諸塞州頒布。1931年12月，一個(gè)名為APIASME聯(lián)合委員會(huì)的組織組建了起來，目的是為石油工業(yè)編寫無火的壓力容器規(guī)范。另有一部ANSI/ASME鍋爐和壓力容器規(guī)范作為法規(guī)已在美國(guó)的47個(gè)州和加拿大的所有省份實(shí)施。世界通用的壓力容器規(guī)范除了ASME鍋爐和壓力容器規(guī)范在世界范圍內(nèi)被規(guī)范使用外，許多其他的壓力容器規(guī)范也在世界其他國(guó)家依法使用。比利時(shí)《壓力容器構(gòu)造可靠實(shí)踐規(guī)范》，比利時(shí)布魯塞爾市比利時(shí)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)協(xié)會(huì)（IBN）。In the case of biomass bustion , however, this will be possible on only very large scales, whereas atmospheric biomass gasification is projected to attain these efficiencies on considerably smaller scales。It is further parable to a coalfueled power plant with respect to flue gas emissions and solid residues from the bustion process and flue gas —；bustion—；flue—煙道；這是進(jìn)一步就煙氣排放和在燃燒過程、煙氣清理中的固體殘留與燃煤發(fā)電廠的比較。Increase the toughness。it may even crack if make the steel more ductile, it must be is identical with annealing, except that the steel is air cooled。淬火淬火就是通過冷浸鋼，那就是使鋼從轉(zhuǎn)變溫度以上的一個(gè)溫度快速冷卻。改善熱處理鋼可能產(chǎn)生的粗糙晶粒的晶粒結(jié)構(gòu)。但是，在鋼的應(yīng)用部分里，強(qiáng)度不是唯一的必需考慮的性能?；鼗疬^程是這樣達(dá)到的：把淬火后的部分加熱到轉(zhuǎn)變溫度的某點(diǎn)，然后維持這溫度一個(gè)小時(shí)或更多，這要根據(jù)部件的大小判斷。退火過程退火過程就是加熱鋼到稍低于最低轉(zhuǎn)變溫度的一個(gè)溫度后保持一會(huì)兒。正火正火過程包括將溫度加熱到第三轉(zhuǎn)變溫度以上，然后讓該加熱部分在空氣中冷卻直到與空氣溫度相同。這樣鋼的成分就會(huì)更均勻從而使熱處理方法更統(tǒng)一。打算使金屬收縮的力并沒有減少，當(dāng)金屬再次被冷卻時(shí)，這個(gè)力與內(nèi)應(yīng)力一樣不變。最小的直徑不到一英寸，最大的直徑能達(dá)到150英尺甚至更大。其他因素如熱應(yīng)力和不連續(xù)壓力可能有要求厚度決定。假如使用碳鋼，然而，由于這高價(jià)的制造費(fèi)用就不比凸緣形和碟形的封頭經(jīng)濟(jì)。錐型和準(zhǔn)錐形封頭這些封頭在漏斗型和塔容器中作為底部封頭應(yīng)用，而且它們也可用做不同圓柱直徑的過渡區(qū)域。雖然扁平的封頭可能是圓形或非圓形的，但是它們有均勻的厚度。有時(shí)閉口有一個(gè)人孔蓋或或手孔蓋直接被焊接或用螺栓連接在容器上。熱膨脹問題應(yīng)該被考慮。對(duì)于這些容器要求野外安裝與在現(xiàn)場(chǎng)建造的相比，盡管容器制造的不利條件，但是在焊接處的質(zhì)量安全必須保證。第一分篇用近似的公式，圖表，和曲線圖在簡(jiǎn)單的計(jì)算。沖擊力和周期要求也要包括。材料的說明書所有的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)都有材料的詳細(xì)說明書和要求用于描述哪種材料是允許的。在許多國(guó)家，一種因素被應(yīng)用在經(jīng)過許多次試驗(yàn)而建立起來的一系列數(shù)據(jù)上。但是不同種類板式和其他形式是有價(jià)值的和經(jīng)濟(jì)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)能力。換熱表面對(duì)于清掃的容易性德爾板框式換熱器特別適用于污垢設(shè)備，也適用于衛(wèi)生要求較高的行業(yè)，比如制藥和食品工業(yè)，受到可能的墊圈式的密封材料性能的影響，一般最高壓力值為300 psig，最高溫度為400 0F.。在兩邊熱傳遞系數(shù)較高。從商業(yè)上說，翹片式換熱器適用于低溫設(shè)備，也是用于與汽輪機(jī)相關(guān)的高溫恢復(fù)設(shè)備。當(dāng)在處理石油脫蠟和液體結(jié)晶時(shí)，內(nèi)表面上應(yīng)該提供刮刀。蕩船熱效率超過每小時(shí)1千萬英熱時(shí)單位時(shí)，空氣冷卻器與水滿足要求且供應(yīng)量充足時(shí)，與水冷在經(jīng)（3）在與大直徑殼體相比，我們的環(huán)裝空間是使用較高壓力來滿足經(jīng)濟(jì)性能（4）而與開放式殼體換熱器相比，當(dāng)我們的換熱器表面僅僅是100 ~ 200sqft時(shí)，我們套管式換熱器有較高的經(jīng)濟(jì)性殼管換熱器這種換熱器將在以后幾章討論?，F(xiàn)在，兩種典型的排水泵是容積泵和離心泵。而離心泵時(shí)使用了一種螺旋推進(jìn)器，旋轉(zhuǎn)時(shí)使水流動(dòng)，而且推進(jìn)器的切片是在泵送水時(shí)侵入水中的。在十七世紀(jì)末和十八世紀(jì)初，英國(guó)的工程師Thomas Savory，法國(guó)的物理學(xué)家Denis Pa]pin，和英國(guó)的鐵匠和發(fā)明家Tomas Newen,它們發(fā)明了用蒸汽驅(qū)動(dòng)活塞的水泵。在雙作用的水泵中，泵的作用發(fā)生在活塞的兩側(cè)，比如說電動(dòng)的或氣動(dòng)的鍋爐給水泵，水以高壓通過蒸汽鍋爐供給。對(duì)于低壓泵來說，擴(kuò)壓泵一般就是一個(gè)螺旋形的通道，成為蝸殼，作用原理是攔截面逐漸增加可以有效降低流體的過度。從一種流的狀態(tài)轉(zhuǎn)換到另一種流的狀態(tài)是漸進(jìn)的，對(duì)于中間狀態(tài)，設(shè)備可稱為混流泵。也可通過一個(gè)在外殼旋轉(zhuǎn)的螺桿來構(gòu)造一個(gè)簡(jiǎn)單而低效的泵，螺桿推動(dòng)也提前進(jìn)。大閥的直徑可能超過五米。盡管目前發(fā)展趨勢(shì)越來越標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化，越來越簡(jiǎn)化。那些自動(dòng)工作的閥，比如安全閥或泄壓閥，減壓閥，非回流閥，凝氣閥和相似的設(shè)備。但是由于粗心在設(shè)