【正文】 s included Ireland after 1807. So the national market was not hindered by internal customs barriers.1707年后，英格蘭、蘇格蘭和威爾士形成海關協(xié)會，1807年后愛爾蘭加入。4．Consequences of the industrial Revolution工業(yè)革命的結果（1） Britain was by 1830 the “workshop of the world”。(3) There were also various socalled rotten or pocket boroughs.還有各種稱之為腐敗選區(qū)或口袋選區(qū)。 (5)payment of members of Parliament。Chartism failed because of its weak and divided leadership, and its lack of coordination with tradeunionism. The working class still immature, without the leadership of a political party armed with correct revolutionary theory. The Chartist movement was, however, the first nationwide working class movement and drew attention to serious problems. The 6 points were achieved very gradually over the period of 18581918, although the sixth has never been practical. Lenin said that Chartism was “the first broad, really mass, politically formed, proletarian。 (3)equal electoral districts。英語國家概況精講系列（十二）III. The Chartist Movement (18361848)憲章運動（18361848）1. Reasons for parliamentary reforms.議會改革的原因(1) Power was monopolized by the aristocrats.權力被貴族壟斷。1769年理查 德阿克賴特的水力紡織機；(4) Samuel Crompton’s mule in 17791779年塞繆爾克朗普頓的走綻紡紗機；(5) Edmund Cartwright’s power loom in 1784。(6) British engineers had sound training as craftsmen.英國工程師為訓練有素的手工藝人。2．Britain was the first country to industrialize because of the following factors:英國成為第一個工業(yè)化的國家，原因如下：(1) Favourable geopraphical location. Britain was well placed geographically to participate in European and world trade。圈地運動持續(xù)了將近一個多世紀。1688年11月15日威廉在托爾比登陸并占領倫敦。s son to return from his exile in France as king Charles II. It was called the Restoration.1658年奧利弗克倫威爾去世，他的兒子理查德繼任護國公，政權立即開始瓦解。The Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell()Cromwell was leader of the first civil war against charles I. His famous “Ironside” cavalry and New Model Army(新模范軍) defeated the king. After the War he was made Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England and he instituted direct military rule of the country.After king Charles I’s exection in 1649, Oliver Cromwell and the “Rump”（殘余國會）declared England a was no king, no House of Lords in England. The Commonwealth ended in 1660 when Charles II became king. 克倫威爾領導了第一次對抗查理1世內戰(zhàn)。VI. The Civil Wars and their consequencesBecause of the absolute rule of Charles, the confrontation between Charles I and the parliament developed into the civil war. The war began on August 22,1642 and ended in 1651. Charles I was condemned to death.The English Civil War is also called the Puritan Revolution. It has been seen as a conflict between the parliament and the King, and a conflict between economic interests of the Crown. The economic interests of the urban middle classed coincided with their religious ( Puritan) ideology while the Crown’s traditional economic interests correspondingly allied with Anglican religious belief. The English Civil War not only overthrew feudal system in England but also shook the foundation of the feudal rule in Europe. It is generally regarded as the beginning of modern world history.由于查爾斯的“君權神授”統(tǒng)治權，他與議會的對質發(fā)展成了內戰(zhàn)。近30年的時間，伊莉莎白成功挑起了兩大天主教強國法國和西班牙互相斗殺，從而免于英國卷入任何主要的歐洲國的沖突。伊不同意他們的要求。他解散了所有英國的修道院和修女院，因為后者對教皇比對英國國王更忠誠。 The English Reformation亨利八世和英國的宗教改革Henry VIII was above all responsible for the religious reform of the church. There were three main causes: a desire for change and reform in the church had been growing for many years and now, encouraged by the success of Martin Luther, many people believed its time had e。地主想把耕地變?yōu)槿肆π枨筝^少的牧場。但是最終被逐出法國The battle of Argencourt 阿壤科之戰(zhàn)It took place in 1415 and the English won a crushing victory. After the victory, the English king Henry Ⅴ was recognized as the French ，亨利5世登上法國王位。s desire to ③stop France from giving aid to Scots and ④ a growing sense of nationalism were the other causes.The English39。 origins of the English Parliament英國議會的起源The Great Council is known to be the prototype (原型) of the current British Parliament. In 1265, Simon de Montfort summoned （召集） the Great Council, together with two knights from each county and two citizens from each town. It later developed into the House of Lords and the House of Commons. Its main role was to offer advice，not to make decisions. There were no elections or parties. And the most important part of Parliament was the House of Lords.大議會是當今英國議會的原型。⑦英國封建制獨有的特色就是，無論是土地承租人還是二佃戶，都必須要宣誓效忠于直接地主，而且要效忠于國王。s feudalism under the rule of William the Conqueror在威廉統(tǒng)治下的英國封建制度①Under William, the feudal system in England was pletely established. ②According to this system, the King owned all the land personally. ③William gave his barons large estates in England in return for a promise of military service and a proportion of the land39。于是，封建制度在英國完全建立。V．The Norman Conquest (1066)諾曼征服（公元1066年）1．Reasons for William’s invasion of England after Edward’s death.威廉在愛德華死后入侵英國的原因。協(xié)議規(guī)定丹麥人控制英格蘭北部和西部（丹麥法區(qū)），而他統(tǒng)治其他地區(qū)。2．King Alfred (849899) and his contributions艾爾弗雷德國王（849899）和他所做出的貢獻Alfred was a king of Wessex. He defeated the Danes and reached a friendly agreement with them in 879. The Danes gained control of the north and east, while he ruled the rest. He also converted some leading Danes into Christians.He ①founded a strong fleet and is known as “ the father of the British navy”. He ②reorganized the Saxon army, making it more efficient. He ③translated a Latin book into English. He also首先，他們把國家劃分為郡，郡法庭和郡法官、或行政司法長官負責執(zhí)法。The AngloSaxons brought their own Teutonic religion to Britain. Christianity soon disappeared, except among the Celts of Cornwall, Wales, Scotland and Ireland. In 597, Pope Gregory I sent St. Augustine, the Prior of St. Andrew’s Monastery in Rome, to England to convert the heathen (異教的) English to Christianity. In 597 St. Augustine became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. He was remarkably successful in converting the king and the nobility, but the conversion of the mon people was largely due to the missionary ac