【正文】 of the parent drug molecule? Elucidation of the SAR within a series of active pounds is the key to optimizing the potency and other desirable biological properties in order to identify a new chemical entity (NCE) as a bona fide drug candidate. Quantitative structure activity relationships (QSAR) are often employed in this effort。D since isolated enzymes or microorganisms can often achieve an enantiospecific chemical transformation much more efficiently and economically than conventional synthetic methods. Many ―big pharma‖ panies now have dedicated groups that exclusively study enzymatic reactions.與純對映異構(gòu)體的分離已成為越來越重要的合成。Lesson 23 Food NutritionFood is any substance, usually posed primarily of carbohydrates, fats, water and/or proteins, that can be eaten or drunk by an animal or human for nutrition or pleasure.食物是什么物質(zhì)，通常由主要是碳水化合物，脂肪，水分和/或蛋白質(zhì)，能吃或一個動物或人體對營養(yǎng)和樂趣醉。Molecules of carbohydrates and fats consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Carbohydrates may be simple monomers (glucose, fructose, galactose), or large polymers polysaccharides (starch). Fats are triglycerides, made of various fatty acid monomers bound to glycerol. Some fatty acids are essential, but not all. Protein molecules contain nitrogen atoms in addition to the elements of carbohydrates and fats. The nitrogencontaining monomers of protein, called amino acids, fulfill many roles other than energy metabolism, and when they are used as fuel, getting rid of the nitrogen places a burden on the kidneys. Similar to fatty acids, certain amino acids are essential.碳水化合物和脂肪分子由碳，氫，氧的原子。Most foods contain a mix of some or all of the nutrient classes. Some nutrients are required on a regular basis, while others are needed less frequently. Poor health can be caused by an imbalance of nutrients, whether an excess or a deficiency.大多數(shù)食品中含有的一種混合的部分或全部的營養(yǎng)類。例如，解決消費者的要求，一些食品化學(xué)家參與發(fā)現(xiàn)脂肪和糖的替代品，不改變食物的味道和質(zhì)地。類似的脂肪酸，某些氨基酸是必不可少的。碳水化合物和蛋白質(zhì)為17 kJ（4大卡）的每克脂肪提供能量，而37 kJ（9大卡）每克。酶化學(xué)在藥物研發(fā)從分離的酶或微生物往往可以實現(xiàn)手性化學(xué)轉(zhuǎn)化更有效和經(jīng)濟上比傳統(tǒng)的合成方法發(fā)揮了突出的作用。定量結(jié)構(gòu)活性關(guān)系（QSAR）經(jīng)常被用在這方面的努力；分析采用線性自由能關(guān)系，線性回歸，和其他技術(shù)可用于生物活性與電子，空間，極化和關(guān)聯(lián)，對一系列的結(jié)構(gòu)上相關(guān)的化合物的取代基參數(shù)等physicallchemical成員。雖然這樣的技能可以在藥店的事業(yè)仍然是重要的，他們還不足以在藥物發(fā)現(xiàn)的具有挑戰(zhàn)性的任務(wù)，不同的學(xué)術(shù)環(huán)境，合成化學(xué)只是達到目的的一種手段，而不是目的本身。在分子生物學(xué)的巨大進步已導(dǎo)致在生物工程藥物的研制成功，例如，人胰島素，赫賽?。℅enentech的藥物對乳腺癌），和Enbrel（內(nèi)克斯風(fēng)濕性關(guān)節(jié)炎藥物）。Minor air pollutants include:輕微的空氣污染物包括：A large number of minor hazardous air pollutants. Some of these are regulated in USA under the Clean Air Act and in Europe under the Air Framework Directive.大量小的有害空氣污染物。煙霧是一種空氣污染；―煙霧‖是一個合成煙與霧。氨是一種具有氨化合物公式。大氣顆粒物源可以是人造或天然。Volatile organic pounds VOCs are an important outdoor air pollutant. In this field they are often divided into the separate categories of methane ((CH4) and nonmethane (NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to enhanced global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant greenhouse gases via their role in creating ozone and in prolonging the life of methane in the atmosphere, although the effect varies depending on local air quality. Within the NMVOCs, the aromatic pounds benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens and may lead to leukemia through prolonged exposure. 1,3butadiene is another dangerous pound which is often associated with industrial uses.揮發(fā)性有機化合物是一種重要的室外空氣污染物。二氧化氮NO2與公式的化合物。一種二次污染的一個重要的例子是地面臭氧是光化學(xué)煙霧，使許多二次污染Note that some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: that is, they are both emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants.請注意，有些污染物可能是原發(fā)性和繼發(fā)性：即，他們都是直接排放和其他主要污染物的形成。平流層臭氧耗竭因空氣污染一直是威脅人類健康和地球的生態(tài)系統(tǒng)。這樣的熱誘導(dǎo)的流體運動的最初的靜態(tài)液體被稱為自由對流。含有大分子的動能來傳遞能量到較小的動能的地區(qū)是自然的。(6)當(dāng)所有固體都溶解了，把錐形瓶放在工作臺上。結(jié)晶是以溶解度原則為基礎(chǔ):化合物(溶質(zhì))更傾向于溶于熱的液體(溶劑)而非冷的液體。這個過程持續(xù)到將所有的乙醇從混合物中蒸發(fā)出來。所以不能完全將乙醇蒸餾提純。Mechanical physical separation機械物理分離機械物理分離是應(yīng)用機械手段來實現(xiàn)固體、液體或氣體的分離。Evaporation蒸發(fā)它涉及易揮發(fā)溶劑的蒸發(fā)，這些溶劑來自不易揮發(fā)的溶質(zhì)，諸如鹽或溶液中任意其他物質(zhì)。Heat transfer傳熱這個單元操作涉及的原理是控制不同位置處熱量和能量的積累和轉(zhuǎn)移。Crystallization結(jié)晶該操作可實現(xiàn)溶質(zhì)的回收，例如溶液中的鹽可通過液體中的溶質(zhì)沉淀獲得。在乙醇的例子中，由95%乙醇和5%℃。然后傳遞到冷凝管，使它冷卻下來，直到它液化。這是一種每個化學(xué)家在實驗室必須熟練掌握的基本程序。(5)如果仍有不溶解固體，可以加入少量溶劑和強烈振蕩。更大的物質(zhì)的溫度，其組成分子的熱運動更大的（表現(xiàn)在直線運動模式）和振動。作為一個結(jié)果，誘導(dǎo)的壓力梯度，重力，浮力和流體包裹成為擴大移除，從而輸送熱流體運動（即對流）除了傳導(dǎo)。s ecosystems.大氣是一個復(fù)雜的，動態(tài)的天然氣系統(tǒng)，來支持地球上的生命本質(zhì)。相反，它們形成在空氣中主要污染物反應(yīng)或相互作用?？梢员豢醋魇亲厣膱A頂或羽順風(fēng)的城市。Carbon dioxide (CO2), a greenhouse gas emitted from bustion.二氧化碳（CO2），一種溫室氣體排放燃燒。相反，氣溶膠是指顆粒與氣體一起。NH3. It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor. Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to foodstuffs and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and hazardous.氨（NH3）從農(nóng)業(yè)過程中排放。 the word ―smog‖ is a portmanteau of smoke and fog. Classic smog results from large amounts of coal burning in an area caused by a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide. Modern smog does not usually e from coal but from vehicular and industrial emissions that are acted on in the atmosphere by sunlight to form secondary pollutants that also bine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog.顆粒物質(zhì)從氣態(tài)污染物和光化學(xué)煙霧形成的化合物。Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) similarly formed from NOx and VOCs.過氧硝酸（PAN）的NOx和VOCs同樣構(gòu)成?；瘜W(xué)家確實參與了這一領(lǐng)域的藥物發(fā)現(xiàn)他們進行艱苦的分離，純化和藥理活性成分，其中最常見的是存在于微量的天然來源，具有極其復(fù)雜的化學(xué)結(jié)構(gòu)表征。他們受雇于制藥公司因為他們在策劃和進行合成有機化合物獲得的技能。那就是，如何在生物試驗活動的類似物在一系列的變化取決于各種大小，取代基的引入極性，和親脂性的母體藥物分子在不同領(lǐng)域？在一系列的活性化合物的SAR鑒定是優(yōu)化以及其他優(yōu)良的生物學(xué)特性的效力來確定一個新的化學(xué)實體的關(guān)鍵（NCE）作為一個善意的候選藥物。因此，對映選擇性化學(xué)反應(yīng)可負擔(dān)得起的高對映體過量（ee）的一個或一對對映體的其他的藥物化學(xué)家的合成工具價值的成分。 The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide energy, which is measured in Joules or kilocalories (often called ―Calories‖ and written with a capital C to distinguish from gram calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ (4 kcal) of energy per gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram. Vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water do not provide energy, but are necessary for other reasons.大量營養(yǎng)素（不含纖維和水）提供能量，這是焦耳或熱量測量（通常稱為―卡路里‖和大寫C區(qū)分克卡路里）。含氮單體蛋白，稱為氨基酸，完成其他比能量代謝的許多角色，當(dāng)它