【正文】 psCoordination also implies new forms of relationships between freight forwarders. This was favored by the deregulation of many transport modes in the early 1980s. The Aviation Deregulation Act (1979), the Staggers Act (1980), the Motor Carrier Act (1980) and the Ocean Shipping Act (1984) are significant landmarks in this direction. It became easier for different transport operators to establish contractual agreements. Mergers / acquisitions within the same mode started to take place, mainly in maritime and rail transportation, but also modal and intermodal alliances. (4) Global modity chainsGlobalization has permitted the emergence of a structure of production, often known as global modity chains or global production networks. This structure requires a high level of coordination. It is thus expected that this production structure imposes a similar structure of distribution where coordination between modes and different transport systems is required. Under such circumstances, transport demand should increasingly be considered as integrated. (5) NetworksFinally, integrated transport systems rely on the respective strengths of each transport networks. Since networks are expensive to build and operate, linking them promotes efficiency and a higher level of control. This can be considered as a multiplying effect where the efficiency of the whole intermodal network is higher than the sum of its parts. Evolution of Intermodal IntegrationIt can be argued that three major paradigm shifts have taken place within containerized freight distribution systems: (1) Containerization of maritime transport systems.At first, the introduction of the container and its penetration within maritime systems took place. This is particularly the case from the mid 1965s when standardization resulted in mon container size and latching systems. The efficiency of port transshipments improved and inland services, dominantly relying on trucking, began to be established. Still, maritime services tended to be on a pointtopoint basis and between major ports. (2) Containerization of inland transport systems. Containerization moved inland, mainly in an attempt to improve the continuity already established within maritime transportation, particularly with the setting of pendulum services. The introduction of doublestacking rail services in the mid 1980s required the setting and redesign of inland container rail terminals in North America. The adoption of the container in Europe gained momentum when an intermodal system started to emerge in the late 1970s. For example, the shift from conventional and highly irregular barge services to scheduled and reliable container services in the second half of the 1970s gave impetus to a fast containerization process along the Rhine basin up to the main ports of Rotterdam and Antwerp. (3) Intermodal and transmodal operations. Since containerization has expanded to cover maritime and inland transport systems, the next phase dominantly aims at improving its overall efficiency. This efficiency is mainly based in the reduction of the number of times a container is handled as well as the velocity at which intermodal and transmodal operations are performed. Also, the growth in containerized shipments placed additional pressures on intermodal transport systems, which for the maritime segment resulted in the setting of offshore hubs. They mainly act as intermediary locations between major systems of maritime circulation/ Establishment of modity chains. Inland transport systems acmodated a growing amount of traffic, which in many cases resulted in the setting of large inland freight distribution centers (inland ports). Intermodal Transport ChainFour major functions define an intermodal transport chain: (1) Composition. The process of assembling and consolidating freight at a terminal that offers an intermodal interface between a local / regional distribution system and a national / international distribution system. Commonly referred as the first mile. Ideally, loads of freight ing from different suppliers are assembled at distribution centers so they can be forwarded to high capacity modes such as rail and maritime shipping. The dominant mode for such a process tends to be trucking as it offers flexibility and doortodoor services. Activities such as packaging and warehousing are also included in the position process, which is closely linked with the function of production. (2) Connection. Involves a consolidated modal flow, such as a freight train or a containership (or even fleets of trucks), between at least two terminals, which takes place over national or international freight distribution systems. The efficiency of a connection mainly is mainly derived from economies of scale, such as doublestacking or postpanamax containerships, coupled with an adequate frequency of service. (3) Interchange. The major intermodal function takes place at terminals whose purpose is to provide an efficient continuity within a transport chain. Those terminals are dominantly within the realm of national or international freight distribution systems, with ports (transshipment hubs) being the most notable example. (4) Deposition. Once a load of freight has reached a terminal close to its destination, it has to be fragmented and transferred to the local / regional freight distribution system. Commonly referred as the last mile and often represents one of the most difficult segments of distribution. This function, which is linked with the function of consumption, dominantly occurs within metropolitan areas and involves unique distribution problems also known as urban logistics. Integrated Freight Transport Systems: Intermodal and Transmodal OperationsFrom a functional and operational perspective, two ponents are involved in intermodalism:Intermodal transportation. The movements of passengers or freight from one mode of transport to another, monl