【正文】 動(dòng) 提供活動(dòng)中心的卡內(nèi)基音樂(lè)廳?？▋?nèi)基的慷慨大度幾乎影響到每個(gè)美國(guó)人的 生活。 ★ 08 American Revolution The American Revolution was not a revolution in the sense of a radical or total change. It was not a sudden and violent overturning of the political and social framework, such as later occurred in France and Russia, when both were already independent nations. Significant changes were ushered in, but they were not breathtaking. What happened was accelerated evolution rather than outright revolution. During the conflict itself people went on working and praying, marrying and playing. Most of them were not seriously disturbed by the actual fighting, and many of the more isolated munities scarcely knew that a war was on. America39。 這 次革命并不是對(duì)政治和社會(huì)框架的一次突然和猛烈的顛覆，象后來(lái)在已經(jīng)是獨(dú)立國(guó)家的法國(guó) 和俄國(guó)所爆發(fā)的革命那樣。 多 數(shù)人并沒(méi)有受到實(shí)際戰(zhàn)斗的嚴(yán)重影響。美國(guó) 獨(dú)立戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)宣布了三個(gè)現(xiàn)代國(guó)家的誕生，其中一個(gè)是加拿大。 另一個(gè)國(guó)家是澳大利 亞，因?yàn)槊绹?guó)不再是容納罪犯和欠債者的國(guó)度了，澳大利亞就變成了一個(gè)懲治罪犯的殖民地 (注：獨(dú)立戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)前，英國(guó)政府將罪犯流放到美國(guó) )。即使政治上的顛覆也不如人們可能想象的那樣具有革命性。 四處被驅(qū)逐的 英國(guó)官員都被本土的統(tǒng)治階級(jí)所替代，這個(gè)統(tǒng)治階級(jí)迅速地以地方權(quán)力機(jī)關(guān)來(lái)替代國(guó)王和議 會(huì)。s and 184039。 在這之前，城市只是高度密 集的小聚居群。 但是建于 18世紀(jì)三四十年 代的早期工廠位于城邊的航道和鐵路 附近，被工作機(jī)會(huì)吸引到這里的成千上萬(wàn)的人們需要住 房。作為對(duì)這種侵蝕的自衛(wèi)，也為了擴(kuò)大它們收稅的地域范圍，城市吞并 了工業(yè)化的臨近地帶，比如 1854年費(fèi)城的城區(qū)就兼并了費(fèi)縣的絕大部分地區(qū)。 今天很多美國(guó)的大城市其實(shí)就是靠吞并它們附近的邊緣地區(qū)而 變成大都會(huì)的。 當(dāng) 1888年第一條商業(yè)上成功的電氣化鐵軌被制造出 來(lái)時(shí)，壓力開始接近危機(jī)的程度。 此時(shí)城市中產(chǎn)階級(jí)的出現(xiàn)進(jìn)一步加強(qiáng)了第一 波大規(guī)模郊區(qū)化。 ★ 10 Types of Speech Standard usage includes those words and expressions understood, used, and a ccepted by a majority of the speakers of a language in any situation regardless of the level of formality. As such, these words and expressions are well defined and listed in standard dictionaries. Colloquialisms, on the other hand, are familiar words a nd idioms that are understood by almost all speakers of a language and used in informal speech or writing, but not considered appropriate for more formal situations. Almost all idiomatic expressions are colloquial language. Slang, however, refers to words and expressions understood by a large number of speakers but not accepted as good, formal usage by the majority. Colloquial expressions and even slang may be found in standard dictionaries but will be so identified. Both colloquial usage and slang are more mon in speech than in writing. Colloquial speech often passes into standard speech. Some slang also passes into standard speech, but other slang expressions enjoy momentary popularity followed by obscurity. In some cases, the majority never accepts certain slang phrases but nevertheless retains them in their collective memories. Every generation seems to require its own set of words to describe familiar objects and events. It has been pointed out by a number of linguists that three cultural conditions are necessary for the creation of a large body of slang expressions. First, the introduction and acceptance of new objects and situations in the society。 third, association among the subgroups and the majority population. Finally, it is worth noting that the terms standard colloquial and slang exist only as abstract labels for scholars who study language. Only a tiny number of the speakers of any language will be aware that they are using colloquial or slang expressions. Most speakers of English will, during appropriate situations, select and use all three types of expressions. 語(yǔ)言的類型 標(biāo)準(zhǔn)用法包括那些為使用這種語(yǔ)言的大多數(shù)人在任何場(chǎng)合下理解、使用和 接受的詞和短語(yǔ)，而不論該場(chǎng)合是否正式。 相反，俗語(yǔ)是指那些幾乎 所有講這種語(yǔ)言的人都理解并在非正式的口頭或書面中 使用，卻不適用于更正規(guī)的一些場(chǎng)合的詞和短語(yǔ)。 俗語(yǔ)和俚語(yǔ) 詞匯的應(yīng)用都是口頭較多、筆頭較少。 一些俚語(yǔ)也變 成了標(biāo)準(zhǔn)用法，但另外一些俚語(yǔ)只經(jīng)歷了短暫的流行，而后就被棄之不用了。 每一代人似乎都需要 獨(dú)有的一套詞匯來(lái)描述熟知的物體和事件。最后需要提到的是， 標(biāo)準(zhǔn)語(yǔ) 、 俗語(yǔ) 和 俚語(yǔ) 這些 術(shù)語(yǔ)只是對(duì)研究語(yǔ)言的專家才有用的抽象標(biāo)簽。 講英語(yǔ)的多數(shù)人能夠在適當(dāng)?shù)膱?chǎng)合中選擇使用所有 這三種語(yǔ)言類型。s standpoint. What is perhaps worse, most anic materials are perishable. Everything made of wood, hide, wool, linen, grass, hair, and similar materials will decay and vanish in dust in a few years or centuries, save under very exceptional conditions. In a relatively brief period the archaeological record is reduced to mere scraps of stone, bone, glass, metal, and earthenware. Still modern archaeology, by applying appropriate techniques and parative methods, aided by a few lucky finds from peatbogs, deserts, and frozen soils, is able to fill up a good deal of the gap. 考古學(xué) 考古學(xué)是歷史學(xué)的一個(gè)來(lái)源，而不是地位卑微的輔助學(xué)科。 正象任何一位歷史學(xué)家那樣，考古學(xué)家研究調(diào)查 并盡力去重構(gòu)一個(gè)過(guò)程。 考古學(xué)的資料就是人類行為所造成的物質(zhì)變 化。 這些變化的總和構(gòu)成了我們所說(shuō)的考古學(xué)記錄。并不是所有的人類行為都留下化石。 戰(zhàn)場(chǎng)上軍隊(duì)的行動(dòng)可能 改變歷史 的進(jìn)程 ，但從考古學(xué)的觀點(diǎn)來(lái)看，這同樣 是難以捕捉的；可能更糟的是，多數(shù)有機(jī)物質(zhì)會(huì) 腐爛。 在短時(shí)期內(nèi)，能留下考 古記錄的東西也都會(huì)退化為石頭、骨頭、玻璃、金屬和陶器的碎片。 ★ 12 Museums From Boston to Los Angeles, from New York City to Chicago to Dallas, museums are either planning, building, or wrapping up wholesale expansion programs. These programs already have radically altered facades and floor plans or are expected to do so in the nottoodistant future. In New York City alone, six major institutions have spread up and out into the air space and neighborhoods around them or are preparing to do so. The reasons for this confluence of activity are plex, but one factor is a consideration everywhere space. With collections expanding, with the needs and functions of museums changing, empty space has bee a very precious modity. Probably nowhere in the country is this more true than at the Philadelphia Museum of Art, which has needed additional space for decades and which received its last significant facelift ten years ago. Because of the space crunch, the Art Museum has bee increasingly cautious in considering acquisitions and donations of art, in some cases passing up opportunities to strengthen its collections. Deaccessing or selling off works of art has taken on new importance because of the museum39。s president. 博物館 從波士頓到洛杉機(jī)，從 紐約到芝加哥、到達(dá)拉斯，所有的博物館或者正在籌劃、建造或 者正在完成大規(guī)模的擴(kuò)建計(jì)劃。 單單在紐約市，六個(gè)主要機(jī)構(gòu)或者已經(jīng)向空中和周 圍擴(kuò)展，或者正準(zhǔn)備這樣做。 隨著收藏品的增多，也隨著博物館的需要和功能的變化，空間已經(jīng)變成 了一項(xiàng)非常珍貴的商品。 這個(gè)博物館幾十年來(lái)一直需要額外的空間，十 年前進(jìn)行了最后一次重大的翻新。由于博物館的空間問(wèn)題，將藝術(shù)品脫手或者說(shuō)賣掉已經(jīng)有了新的重要意義