【正文】
nouGoldberg (1995) 國產(chǎn)中型轎車 美國 KoujianouGoldberg (1995) 外國中型轎車 美國 KoujianouGoldberg (1995) 消費品 CDs 澳洲 Bain amp。 Griffin (1995) 公共事業(yè)產(chǎn)品 電力(家庭用) 魁北克 Bernard et al. (1991) 電話服務 西班牙 Garin Munoz (1996) 自來水(家庭用) 美國 , Williams amp。 Suh(1986) Slide 30 表 31 市場需求的自身價格彈性(續(xù)) ? 都是負數(shù) 187。電子郵件是 DHL傳送的間接替代品 187。汽車零配件 187?!附?jīng)濟化」的成本與收益:低參與度產(chǎn)品;比較 Point Price Elasticity Example ? Need a demand curve or demand function to find the price elasticity at a point. E P = %?Q/ %?P =(??Q/?P)(P/Q) If Q = 500 5?P, find the point price elasticity at P = 30。 and P = 80 ? E Q?P = (??Q/?P)(P/Q) = 5(30/350) = .43 ? E Q?P = (??Q/?P)(P/Q) = 5(50/250) = ? E Q?P = (??Q/?P)(P/Q) = 5(80/100) = Slide 33 Price Elasticity (both point price and arc elasticity ) ? If E P = 1, unit elastic ? If E P 1, inelastic, ., ? If E P 1, elastic, ., price elastic region unit elastic inelastic region Straight line demand curve Slide 34 TR and Price Elasticities ? If you raise price, does TR rise? ? Suppose demand is elastic, and raise price. TR = P?Q, so, %?TR = %?P+ %?Q ? If elastic, P , but Q a lot ? Hence TR FALLS !!! ? Suppose demand is inelastic, and we decide to raise price. What happens to TR and TC and profit? Slide 35 價格變動對買方支出的影響 ? 如果需求有彈性,則買方支出下降 187。購買量的減少比例會比價格增加的比例小,所以買方支出會增加 ? 買方支出=賣方收入 Slide 36 價格變動對賣方利潤的影響 ? 價格增加使收入增加 ? 銷售額下降使收入減少 Slide 37 價格變動對賣方利潤的影響(續(xù)) ? 淨值取決於價格彈性 187。如果需求是缺乏彈性的,賣方應該漲價 ? 銷售減少的比例比價格增加的比例小,所以銷售收入會增加?;仡櫭绹娇展?CEO Robert Crandall的評論 ? 航空公司盡可能地對商務旅行者訂定高價(因為他們的需求是缺乏彈性的) Slide 38 Another Way to Remember ? Linear demand curve ? TR on other curve ? Look at arrows to see movement in TR Elastic Unit Elastic Inelastic TR Q Q Slide 39 1979 Deregulation of Airfares ? Prices declined ? Passengers increased ? Total Revenue Increased ? What does this imply about the price elasticity of air travel ? Slide 40 案例 34 損益平衡 項目 改版前 改版後 變化 價格 $2,550 $2,298 10% 銷售額 11,000 S 報紙銷售收入 $ $ 廣告收入 $ $ 總數(shù) $ $ ?所有標價都是港幣 , 1港幣= ?亞洲華爾街日報要達到損益平衡 , 必須達到 >, 也就是 S> , 所以其自身價格彈性必須少於( 比如 , ) Slide 41 案例 34 損益平衡(續(xù)) ? 根本問題 187。亞洲華爾街日報希望透過降價獲得利潤 187。消費者是否對價格敏感? ? 漲價總會降低銷售量 187。透過價格影響使銷售收入上升 187。more substitutes, more elastic ? The proportion of the budget 187。more time, generally, more elastic 187。suppose dollar quantity of food expenditures of families of $20,000 is $5,200。Find the ine elasticity of food 187。some goods are Luxuries: E I 1 187。Expenditures on automobiles 187。Expenditures on 1993 Chevy Cavalier Slide 47 所得彈性 ? 定義 187。 需求量變動比例247。需求量變動百分比247。正常財:所得彈性> 0 187。 快餐店與高級飯店 187。 汽車與摩托車 ? 大多數(shù)類別的商品是正常財,某個類別下的個別商品則是劣等財 187。經(jīng)濟增長與經(jīng)濟不景氣 187。預期收入 ? 日本:通貨緊縮 Slide 50 表 33 市場需求的所得彈性 項目 市場 所得彈 性 資料來源 消費品 香菸 美國 Tegene (1991) 烈酒 美國 Baltagi amp。 Margarine ? Complements have negative cross price elasticities: VCR machines and the rental price of tapes ? When the cross price elasticity is zero or insignificant, the products are not related Slide 53 交叉價格彈性 ? 定義 187。交叉價格彈性為正 ? 互補財 187。替代財 ? 火車與飛機 ? 石油與煤(在發(fā)電行業(yè)) 187。 Beil (1994) 不同加油站的汽油 波士頓 Png amp。 Jalilian (1991) Slide 56 HOMEWORK PROBLEM: Find the point price elasticity, the point ine elasticity, and the point crossprice elasticity at P=10, I=20, and Ps=9, if the demand function were estimated to be: Qd = 90 8I + 2 Lagrangians ? The consumer choice problem can be made into a Lagrangian ? Max L = U(X, Y) ??{Px?X + Py?Y I } i) ?L / ?X = ?U/?X ? Px = 0 MUx = Px ii) ?L / ?Y = ?U/?Y ? Py = 0 MUy = Py iii) Px?X + Py?Y I = 0 ? Equations i) and ii) are rearranged on the righthandside after the bracket to show that the ratio of MU’s equals the ratio of prices. This is the equimarginal principle for optimal consumption } Slide 61 Optimal Consumption Point ? Rearranging we get the Decision Rule: ? MUx / Px = MUy / Py = MUz / Pz “the marginal utility per dollar in each use is equal” ? Lambda is the marginal utility of money Suppose MU1 = 20, and MU2 = 50 and P1 = 5, and P2 = 25 are you maximizing utility? Slide 62 Problem ? Max L = 2X + 2Y +XY .6Y2 ? {48 4X 6Y } 1. Lx: 2