【正文】 eem almost independent of the author’s use of them in the story。 he hints that some sad, passionate spirit is brooding as it watches the passing procession of humanity. Such an object is a symbol: in literature, a symbol is a thing that refers or suggests more than its literal meaning. There are quite a lot of symbols that appear in ordinary life, for the use of symbol is by no means of limited to literature and art. For instance, a dove is a symbol of peace, the flag is the symbol of a country, and the cross is the symbol of the Christian religion. These are symbols adopted by a whole society and are recognized by all members of such a society. There are other kinds of symbols, such as figure 3, which may be abstract symbols. But symbols in literature works are different from either of the other types. Generally speaking, a literary symbol does not have a mon social acceptance, as does the flag。 for instance, the ways sentences are connected. This is the internal anization of a text. Under context, roughly the material, mental, personal, interactional, social, institutional, cultural, and historical situation in which the discourse is made, we consider the external relations of the literary text or a part of the text, seeing it as a discourse presupposing a social relation between its participants (author and reader, character and character, character and reader, etc.), and a sharing of knowledge and assumptions by participants. Cohesion: Does the text contain logical or other links between sentences (eg coordinating conjunctions, linking adverbials), or does it tend to reply on implicit connections of meaning? What sort of use is made of crossreference by pronouns (she, it, they, etc), by substitute forms (do, so, etc), or ellipsis? Is there any use made of elegant variation—the avoidance of repetition by substitution of a descriptive phrase (as “the old lawyer” substitutes for the repetition of an earlier “Mr Jones”)? Are meaning connections reinforced by repetition of words and phrases, or by repeatedly using words from the same semantic field? Context: Does the writer address the reader directly, or through the words or thoughts of some fictional character? What linguistic clues (eg first person pronouns I, me, my, mine) are there of the addresseraddressee relationship? What attitude does the author imply towards his/her subject? If a character’s words or thoughts are represented, is this done by direct quotation, or by some other method (eg indirect speech, free indirect speech)? Are there significant changes of style with respect to different persons (narrator or character) who is supposedly speaking or thinking the words on the page? What is the point of view of the story? Are the frequent shifts of point view? If so, in whose voice is the narrator speaking? Chapter Seven Symbol What is symbol? Symbol, in the simplest sense, anything that stands for or represents something else beyond it—usually an idea conventionally associated with it. Objects like flags and crosses can function symbolically。types of sentence are used, what is their function? Sentence plexity: Do sentences on whole have a simple or a plex structure? What is the average sentence length? Does plexity vary strikingly from one sentence to another? Is plexity mainly due to (i) coordination, (ii) subordination, (iii) juxtaposition of clauses or of other equivalent structures? In what parts of the text does plexity tend to occur? clause types: What types of clauses are favored—relative clauses, adverbial clauses, or different types of nominal clauses? Are nonfinite forms monly used, and if so, of what types are they (infinitive, ing form, ed form, verbless structure)? What is their function? Clause structure: Is there anything significant about clause elements (eg frequency of objects, adverbials, plements。 of transitive or intransitive verb constructions)? Are there any unusual orderings (initial adverbials, fronting of object or plement, etc)? Do special kinds of clause construction occur (such as those with preparatory it or there)? Noun phrases: Are they relatively simple or plex? Where does the plexity lie (in premodification by adjectives, nouns, etc, or in postmodification by preposition by prepositional phrases, relative clauses, etc)? Verb phrases: Are there any significant departures from the use of the simple past tense? For example, notice occurrences and functions of the present tense, of the progressive aspect, of the perfect aspect, of modal auxiliaries. other phrase types: Is there anything to be said about other phrases types, such as prepositional phrases, adverb phrases, adjective phrases? Word classes: Having already considered major word classes, we may consider minor word classes (eg functional words), such as prepositions, conjunctions, pronouns, determiners, auxiliaries, interjections. Are particular words of these types used for particular effect (eg demonstratives such as this and that, negatives such as not, nothing)? General: Note whether any general types of grammatical construction are used to special effect (eg parative or superlative constructions, coordinative or listing constructions, parenthetical constructions, interjections and afterthoughts as occur in causal speech). And see to the number of lists and coordinations. Figures of Speech Here we consider the features which are foregrounded by virtue of departing in some way from general norms of munication by means of the language code, for example, exploitation of deviations from the linguistic code. Grammatical and lexical schemes (foregrounded repetitions of expression): Are there any cases of formal and structural repetition (anaphora, parallelism, etc) or of mirrorimage patterns (chiasmus)? Is the rhetorical effect of these one of antithesis, reinforcement, climax, anticlimax, etc? Phonological schemes: Are there any phonological patterns of rhyme, alliteration, assonance, etc? Are there any salient rhythmical