【正文】 (4th c. . to 325 .) Relief from a stand at Wad Ban Naga temple. It shows Queen Amanitare, wife of her coruler, Natakamani. The inscription is in both Egyptian and Merotic hieroglyphs, and so is important for knowing how to translate Merotic script. The tendency today to see Natakamani as the principle ruler of Kush probably results from our privileging Roman written sources. Gold jackal, Mero235。 images of the sun’s rays shining through clouds as stairways to after world). ? Apex of pyramid design with Great Pyramid of Giza: 2,528 BC – A series of pyramids is constructed to memorate successive rulers Khufu and Khafra (each built a massive pyramid and a series of smaller ones) ? The pyramids were part of larger temple plex, including many funerary buildings and the Sphinx. ? They are a manifestation of the cult of autocratic rulers and a marvel of design and engineering – Built of blocks of limestone and alabaster shipped from quarries along the Nile – Set on the west side of the river (setting sun=death) – Quarring and transportation of these blocks was difficult and required labour of tens of thousands of workers – The Great Pyramid contains 2,300,000 blocks, each weighing tons – Estimated to have required 84,000 people employed for 3 months at a time for 20 years – Some modern historians portray these pharaohs as despots whose ambition for the largest personal monuments nearly destroyed Egyptian economy – Whatever the cause, pyramid construction established the principles of labour tax! First Intermediate Period 2,1952,040 BC ( 8th11th Dynasty) ? Old Kingdom collapses back to a series of local citystates. Collapse is related to prolonged drought, creating starvation and anarchy.. Series of pharaohs try to consolidate power but cannot. ? Anarchy. Kingdom in decline. Tomb robbing ? Questioned whether the state is the divine order!!! ? Start of diverse literature and harp songs Middle Kingdom 2,0401,781 BC (11th13th Dynasty) ? 11th Dynasty: Mentuhotep II subjugates local rulers, reunifies Upper and Lower Egypt and makes Thebes the capital ? 12th Dynasty: Amenemhet IIV. Privately owned land bees renationalized. Campaigns against Libya and Palestine. Sesostris IIII: Conquests in Nubia. Significant literary texts produced Thebes Second Intermediate Period 1,6501,550 BC (14th17th Dynasty) ? Rule of Asian interlopers, the Hyksos (喜克所人 ), in Lower Egypt (Delta area) ? They introduce horses and chariots New Kingdom 1,5501,075 BC (18th20th Dynasty) ? 18th Dynasty: Amosis, Amenhotep I。 Their royal tombs became symbols of veneration for ancient Egyptians) Old Kingdom 2,6702,195 BC (3rd to 6th dynasty) ? 3rd Dynasty: Djoser。 conquered by neighboring societies (Hittites, Nubians) ? Commonly associated w. Mediterranean。 第四節(jié) 埃及文化 ? 文字 ? 文學(xué) ? 建筑與藝術(shù) ? 自然科學(xué) ? 宗教 阿蒙神廟 木乃伊 返回 阿蒙神廟 Ancient Egypt ? First great civilization to be discovered by Europeans ? Produced fascinating material culture (mummies, pyramids, gold, hieroglyphics..) ? With the decipherment of hieroglyphics Egyptian history became clear they produced enormous amounts of writing。 ? 七世紀(jì)時(shí)阿拉伯帝國(guó)興起，埃及成為其一部分。這使大批中等階層的人不勝負(fù)擔(dān)，紛紛破產(chǎn)。 ? 此外，強(qiáng)制公職的實(shí)行，也促進(jìn)了庇護(hù)制的發(fā)展。這種大土地所有者的勢(shì)力越來(lái)越大，形同一些獨(dú)立王國(guó)，羅馬政府對(duì)此已毫無(wú)辦法。 ? 公元一世紀(jì)中葉開(kāi)始，由于羅馬剝削的沉重，埃及農(nóng)民大批逃亡，使得土地荒蕪，國(guó)庫(kù)收入銳減，為保證國(guó)庫(kù)收入，羅馬政府一方面采用逮捕逃亡者家屬的辦法，脅迫逃亡者返回自己的居住地，讓其耕種土地，另一面采取強(qiáng)制代耕，甚至派耕的辦法，使盡可能多的土地得到耕種。（ 3）有的荒地被出價(jià)招募人來(lái)開(kāi)墾，也逐漸變?yōu)樗接型恋?。這種私有土地來(lái)源如下：（ 1）原來(lái)軍事移民的份地變成了世襲的地產(chǎn)。 ? 羅馬統(tǒng)治埃及之初，屋大維及其繼承者，將托勒密王室的土地繼承了下來(lái)，成為元首的財(cái)產(chǎn)，整個(gè)埃及的土地名義上也歸元首所有。 羅馬人統(tǒng)治時(shí)期 （ BC30－ AD642年） ? 公元前 30年，羅馬呑并埃及，由于埃及的富庶，屋大維把埃及劃為他的私人領(lǐng)地，全部土地和收入歸其所有。 ? 土地的耕種者主要是“王田農(nóng)民”，他們耕種王室土地，也耕種神廟土地或其它土地，他們租地一般都訂有契約，租稅很重?！百n田”的最高所有權(quán)仍屬于國(guó)王。同時(shí)，也極力籠絡(luò)埃及的上層奴隸主貴族和神廟祭司貴族。公元前 30年，托勒密王朝為羅馬所滅，結(jié)束了在埃及的統(tǒng)治。 希臘人統(tǒng)治時(shí)期 （ BC332－ 30年） ? 亞歷山大東侵滅亡了波斯帝國(guó)后，建立了龐大的亞歷山大帝國(guó)。公元前五世紀(jì)，波斯在同希臘的戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)中遭到慘敗，埃及人乘機(jī)反抗但未成功。 ? 波斯人的野蠻統(tǒng)治引起了埃及人民一次又一次的反抗斗爭(zhēng)。公元前404年埃及又爭(zhēng)得獨(dú)立，前后一百余年。 二、外族統(tǒng)治 ? 埃赫那呑去世 300年后，埃及國(guó)勢(shì)衰落，被征服地區(qū)紛紛擺脫了它的統(tǒng)治，外族勢(shì)力乘機(jī)侵入埃及。（ 3）沒(méi)有為廣大人民帶來(lái)利益，得不到他們的支持。 ?