【正文】 TPO 19 Conversation 1 Listen to a conversation between a student and the professor. Student Hi, professor Handerson. That was a really interesting lecture in class today. Professor Thanks, Tom. Yeah, animals’ use of deception, ways they play tricks on other animals, that’s a fascinating area. One we are really just starting to understand. Student Yeah, you know, selective adaptations over time are one thing. Oh, like, nonpoisonous butterflies, that have e to look like poisonous ones. But the idea that animals of the same species intentionally deceive each other, I have never heard that before. Professor Right, like, there are male frogs who lower their voices and end up sounding bigger than they really are. Student So they do that to keep other frogs from invading their territory ? Professor Right, bigger frogs have deeper voices, so if a smaller frog can imitate that deep voice. Well ... Student Yeah, I can see how that might do the trick. But, anyway, what I wanted to ask was, when you started talking about game theory. Well, I know a little bit about it, but I am not clear about its use in biology. Professor3 Yeah, it is fairly new to biology. Basically, it uses math to predict what an individual would do under certain circumstances. But for example, a buisness sells, oh puter, say, and they want to sell their puters to a big university. But there is another pany bidding too. So, what should they do? Student Well, try to offer the lowest price so they can pete, but still make money. Professor Right, they are peting, like a game, like the frogs. There are risks with pricing too high, the other pany might get the sale, there is also the number and types of puters to consider. Each pany has to find a balance between the cost and benefits. Well, game theory creates mathematical models that analyze different conditions like this to predict outes. Student Ok, I get that. But how does it apply to animals ? Professor Well, you know, if you are interested in this topic, it would be perfect for your term paper. Student The literature review ? Professor Yeah, find three journal articles about this or another topic that interests you and discuss them. If there is a confict in the conclusions or something, that would be important to discuss. Student Well, from what I have looked at dealing with game theory, I can’t say I understand much of the statistics end. Professor Well, I can point you to some that presents fairly basic studies, that don’t assume much background knowledge. You’ll just need to answer a few specific questions: What was the researchers’ hypothesis? What did they want to find out? And how did they conduct their research? An then the conclusions they came to. Learning to interpret these statistics will e later. Lecture 1Linguistics(ProtoIndoEuropean) Narrator Listen to part of a lecture in a linguistics class. Professor All right, so far we have been looking at some of the core areas of linguistics, like syntax, phonology, semantics, and these are things that we can study by looking at one language at a time, how sounds, and words, and sentences work in a given language. But the branch of historical linguistics, involves the parison of several different languages, or the parison of different stages of a single language. Now, if you are paring different languages, and you notice that they have a lot in mon. Maybe they have similar sounds and words that correspond to one another that have the same meaning and that sound similar. Let’s use a realworld example. In the 18th century, scholars who have studied the ancient languages, Sanskrit, Latin and Greek, noticed that these three languages had many similarities. And there might be several reasons why languages such as these had so much in mon. Maybe it happened by chance, maybe one language was heavily influenced by borrowed words from the other. Or maybe, maybe the languages developed from the same source language long ago, that is, maybe they are genetically related, that was what happened with Sanskrit, Latin and Greek. These languages had so many similarities that it was concluded that they must have all e from the same source. And talk about important discoveries in linguistics, this was certainly one of them. The scholars referred to that source language as ProtoIndoEuropean, ProtoIndoEuropean is a reconstructed language. Meaning, it is what linguists concluded a parent language of Sanskrit, Latin and Greek would have to be