【文章內(nèi)容簡介】 ed. Part Four The ParagraphA paragraph is a unit of thought. A long paragraph expresses a plex idea, and a short one makes a major transition, an emphatic statement, or a summary.Ⅰ. Effective ParagraphsA paragraph is like a miniessay。 it should be unified, coherent and well development. 1. UnityUnity of a paragraph is concerned with its content. If all the sentences in the paragraph lead to one central theme, the paragraph is unified. The central theme is usually summarized in what is called the topic sentence. It often appears at the beginning of the paragraph。 however, it may also be found in the middle or at the end of a paragraph. Sometimes, the topic sentence is not stated explicitly but is implied. 2. CoherenceCoherence of a paragraph is concerned with its form, or its organization. The sentences in a paragraph should be arranged in a clear, logical order, and the transitions should be smooth and natural. 3. TransitionThe following ways may help the writer to produce a fluent paragraph:A. Using parallel structures。B. Repeating words or word groups。C. Using pronouns to refer to nouns in preceding sentences。D. Being consistent in the person and number of nouns and pronouns, and the tense of verbs.Ⅱ. Ways of Developing Paragraphs1. Planning a ParagraphParagraphs need to be planned. First, think of the topic or theme or main idea, and express it in a plete sentence (topic sentence). Then think of the details or examples or facts that may be used to support or explain the main idea. Work out an outline to arrange them in logical order, and you have a rough plan of the paragraph.2. Development by TimeIn telling a story or recounting an event, the easiest and clearest way is to describe things in order of time: earlier things are mentioned before later things, the first thing first and the last thing last. This method is also called chronological sequencing.3. Development by ProcessWhen you have to explain how something is done, you usually follow a chronological sequence and give a stepbystep description.4. Development by SpaceBefore we begin to describe a place, we have to decide on the order in which to name the different parts or details. For this we should find out the space relationships between them and arrange our description accordingly. 5. Development by Example or GeneralizationSupporting a topic sentence with examples or illustrations makes a general statement specific and easy to understand. There are two pattern of arrangement of details (or examples) in a paragraph: the generaltospecific or the specifictothe generalDetails or examples are usually arranged in climactic order: the least important es first, followed by others in order of increasing importance.6. Development by Comparison and ContrastStrictly speaking, a parison points out the similarities between two things of the same thing, while a contrast, the differences between them. There are two major ways of organizing paragraphs of parison and contrast. One way is to examine one thing thoroughly and then examine the other. In this way, the aspects examined in the two things should be identical and in the same order. This method is called block parison or block contrast. The other way is to examine two things at the same time, discussing them point by point. This method is called alternating parison or alternating contrast.Alternating contrast is used when you want to point out several differences between two things or people without discussing them in great detail. You merely point out a special feature of one item and then state how the other item differs from it in that aspect.Block parison is suitable when the writer wants to treat points of similarity in depth. In this way each point is drawn out and its relationship to another point is made clear. This type of parison is often used when the points of similarity discussed are not many but plex, and require much explanation. There is a special form of parison analogy. Analogy is tracing a striking likeness between unlike things.Analogies are especially helpful in explaining abstract ideas, for they relate ideas that cannot be experienced through the senses of sight, smell, hearing, touch, or taste, to a sense experience, thus making the ideas easy to understand.7. Development by Cause and EffectSound reasoning or logic is naturally the most important quality of any causal analysis. There are two basic ways of organizing paragraphs developed by cause and effect. The first method is to state an effect and devote the rest of the paragraph to examining the causes. The second method is to state a cause and then mention or predict the effects.8. Development by ClassificationTo classify is to sort things into categories according to their characteristics. Essential to a good classification is parallelism.9. Development by DefinitionThere are three basic ways to define a word or term: to give a synonym, to use a sentence (often with an attributive clause), and to write a paragraph or even an essay. When we give a definition, we should observe certain principles.First, we should avoid circular definitions. Second, we should avoid long lists of synonyms if the term to be defined is an abstract one. Third, we should avoid loaded definitions. Loaded definitions do not explain terms but make an immediate appeal for emotional approval. 10. Development by a Combination of MethodsWriters may find it necessary to use a bination of methods in order to present their ideas in an impressive and convincing manner.Part Five The Whole CompositionLike a paragraph, a position must have unity. All the facts and all the ideas in an essay should contribute to the presentation of its thesis or central thought. Proportion is as important to an essay. The essential part of an essay is the body or the middle part. To give this part about sevenor eighttenths of the total space will be ju