【文章內(nèi)容簡(jiǎn)介】 heory traces theater to those dances that are primarily rhythmical and gymnastic or that are imitations of animal movements and sounds. 戲劇的起源 關(guān)于古希臘戲劇的起源存在著多種理論，其中一個(gè)最普遍為人接受的理論 假設(shè)認(rèn)為戲劇從儀式演化而來(lái)。 這個(gè)觀(guān)點(diǎn)是這樣進(jìn)行論證的：一開(kāi)始，人類(lèi)把世 界上的自 然力量，甚至季節(jié)的變化都看成是不可預(yù)料的。 他們?cè)噲D通過(guò)各種方式去控制這些未知的、 令人恐懼的力量。 那些似乎帶來(lái)了滿(mǎn)意結(jié)果的手段就被保留下來(lái)并且重復(fù)直到這些手段固 化為不變的儀式，最后產(chǎn)生了能夠解釋或者掩蓋這些儀式神秘性的故事。 隨著時(shí)間的推移， 一些儀式被廢棄了，但這些后來(lái)被稱(chēng)作神話(huà)的故事流傳下來(lái)并且為藝術(shù)和戲劇提供了素材。 認(rèn)為戲劇從儀式演化而來(lái)的人們還認(rèn)為那些儀式包含了戲劇的基本因素，因?yàn)橐魳?lè)、舞蹈、 面具和服裝幾乎經(jīng)常被使用，而且，必須為演出提供一個(gè)合適的地點(diǎn)；如果不是整個(gè)社區(qū)共 同參 加演出，經(jīng)常在 演出區(qū) 和 觀(guān)眾席 之間劃分出明顯的分界。 另外，儀式中還有演員， 而且宗教領(lǐng)袖通常承擔(dān)演出任務(wù)，因?yàn)樵趦x式的執(zhí)行中避免錯(cuò)誤的發(fā)生被認(rèn)為有相當(dāng)大的重 要性；他們經(jīng)常帶著面具，穿著服裝象演員那樣扮演其它人、動(dòng)物或超自然的生靈，用動(dòng)作 來(lái)表演以達(dá)到所需要的效果，比如打獵的成功或戰(zhàn)斗的勝利、將至的雨、太陽(yáng)的復(fù)活。 最 后這些戲劇性的表演從宗教活動(dòng)中分離了出來(lái)。 另一個(gè)追溯戲劇起源的理論認(rèn)為它來(lái)自人 們對(duì)敘述故事的興趣。 根據(jù)這個(gè)觀(guān)點(diǎn)，故事 (關(guān)于狩獵、戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)或者其它偉績(jī) )是逐漸豐富起 來(lái)的。 首先通過(guò) 一個(gè)講解人來(lái)運(yùn)用模仿、表演和對(duì)話(huà)，然后再由不同的人扮演各自的角色； 另一個(gè)與之緊密相關(guān)的理論將戲劇的起源追溯至舞蹈，這些舞蹈大體上是有節(jié)奏感的和體操 式的那一類(lèi)，或者是對(duì)動(dòng)物動(dòng)作和聲音的模仿。 ★ 06 Television Television the most pervasive and persuasive of modern technologies, marked by rapid change and growth is moving into a new era, an era of extraordinary sophistication and versatility, which promises to reshape our lives and our world. It is an electronic revolution of sorts, made possible by the marriage of television and puter technologies. The word television, derived from its Greek (tele: distant) and Latin (visio: sight) roots, can literally be interpreted as sight from a distance. Very simply put, it works in this way: through a sophisticated system of electronics, television provides the capability of converting an image (focused on a special photoconductive plate within a camera) into electronic impulses, which can be sent through a wire or cable. These impulses, when fed into a receiver (television set), can then be electronically reconstituted into that same image. Television is more than just an electronic system, however. It is a means of expression, as well as a vehicle for munication, and as such bees a powerful tool for reaching other human beings. The field of television can be divided into two categories determined by its means of transmission. First, there is broadcast television, which reaches the masses through broad based airwave transmission of television signals. Second, there is nonbroadcast television, which provides for the needs of indivi duals or specific interest groups through controlled transmission techniques. Traditionally, television has been a medium of the masses. We are most familiar with broadcast television because it has been with us for about thirtyseven years in a form similar to what exists today. During those years, it has been controlled, for the most part, by the broadcast works, ABC, NBC, and CBS, who have been the major purveyors of news, information, and entertainment. These giants of broadcasting have actually shaped not only television but our perception of it as well. We have e to look upon the picture tube as a source of entertainment, placing our role in this dynamic medium as the passive viewer. 電視電視 以快速變化與發(fā)展為標(biāo)志的最普遍、最具有影響力的一項(xiàng)現(xiàn)代技術(shù)，正在步 入一個(gè)極端復(fù)雜化與多樣化的新 時(shí)代。 這個(gè)時(shí)代承諾重新塑造我們的生活和我們的世界。 這可以稱(chēng)得上是又一次電子革命，其關(guān)鍵在于電視技術(shù)與計(jì)算機(jī)技術(shù)的結(jié)合。 電視 這個(gè)詞 來(lái)源于希臘語(yǔ)詞根 (tele：遠(yuǎn) )和拉丁語(yǔ)詞根 (vision：景象 )，可以從字面上理解為來(lái)自遠(yuǎn)處的 景象。 簡(jiǎn)單說(shuō)來(lái)，電視是以這種方式工作的，通過(guò)一個(gè)復(fù)雜的電子系統(tǒng)，電視能夠?qū)⒁环? 圖像 (這幅圖像被聚焦在一部攝像機(jī)內(nèi)的一塊特殊的光導(dǎo)底片上 )轉(zhuǎn)換成能經(jīng)過(guò)導(dǎo)線(xiàn)或電纜 發(fā)送出去的電子脈沖信號(hào)。 當(dāng)這些電子脈沖信號(hào)被輸入一部接收機(jī) (電視機(jī) )時(shí)，就可以用 電子學(xué)的方法把脈沖信號(hào)重新 恢復(fù)成同一幅圖像。但是，電視不僅僅是一個(gè)電子系統(tǒng)，它還 是一種表達(dá)工具和傳播渠道。 因此，電視成了一個(gè)對(duì)其他人發(fā)生影響的強(qiáng)大工具。電視這 個(gè)領(lǐng)域可以根據(jù)其發(fā)射方式分為兩類(lèi)。 第一類(lèi)為廣播電視，通過(guò)電視信號(hào)的寬帶無(wú)線(xiàn)電波 發(fā)射展現(xiàn)在大眾面前；第二類(lèi)為非廣播電視，使用受控的發(fā)射技術(shù)來(lái)滿(mǎn)足個(gè)人以及某些特殊 利益群體的需要。電視早已成為大眾媒介。 我們熟悉廣播電視，因?yàn)閺V播電視已經(jīng)以類(lèi)似 目前的方式存在了大約 37年。 在那些年頭中，電視絕大部分一直由 ABC、 NBC、 CBS 這 些廣播電視公司控制著，這些廣播電視公司一 直是新聞、信息和娛樂(lè)的主要提供者。 這些 廣播業(yè)的巨頭實(shí)際上不僅塑造了電視，而且也塑造了我們對(duì)電視的理解。 我們漸漸把顯像 管看作是娛樂(lè)的來(lái)源，讓自己成為這個(gè)生動(dòng)的媒介的被動(dòng)觀(guān)眾。 ★ 07 Andrew Carnegie Andrew Carnegie, known as the King of Steel, built the steel industry in the United States, and, in the process, became one of the wealthiest men in America. His success resulted in part from his ability to sell the product and in part from his policy of expanding during periods of economic decline, when most of his petitors were reducing their investments. Carnegie believed that individuals should progress through hard work, but he also felt strongly that the wealthy should use their fortunes for the benefit of society. He opposed charity, preferring instead to provide educational opportunities that would allow others to help themselves. He who dies rich, dies disgraced, he often said. Among his more noteworthy contributions to society are those that bear his name, including the Carnegie Institute of Pittsburgh, which has a library, a museum of fine arts, and a museum of national history. He also founded a school of technology that is now part of CarnegieMellon University. Other philanthropic gifts are the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace to promote understanding between nations, the Carnegie Institute of Washington to fund scientific research, and Carnegie Hall to provide a center for the arts. Few Americans have been left untouched by Andrew Carnegie39。s generosity. His contributions of more than five million dollars established 2,500 libraries in small munities throughout the country and formed the nucleus of the public library system that we all enjoy today. 安德魯 卡內(nèi)基 被稱(chēng)作鋼鐵大王的安德魯 卡內(nèi)基在美國(guó)建立了鋼鐵工業(yè)。 在這個(gè)過(guò) 程中，他變成了美國(guó)最富有的人之一。 他的成功，部分來(lái)自于他銷(xiāo)售產(chǎn)品的能力，部分來(lái) 自于經(jīng)濟(jì)蕭條時(shí)期的擴(kuò)充策略。 在蕭條時(shí)期，他的多數(shù)對(duì)手都在縮減投資。卡內(nèi)基認(rèn)為個(gè) 人應(yīng)該通過(guò)努力工作來(lái)獲得進(jìn)展，但他也強(qiáng)烈地感到有錢(qián)人應(yīng)該運(yùn)用 他們的財(cái)富來(lái)為社會(huì)謀 取福利。 他反對(duì)施舍救濟(jì)，更愿意提供教育機(jī)會(huì)，使別人自立。 卡內(nèi)基經(jīng)常說(shuō)： 富有著 死去的人死得可恥。 他對(duì)社會(huì)的較重要的貢獻(xiàn)都以他的名字命名。 這些貢獻(xiàn)包括匹茲堡卡 內(nèi)基學(xué)校。 這個(gè)學(xué)校有一個(gè)圖書(shū)館，一個(gè)美術(shù)館和一個(gè)國(guó)家歷史博物館；他還創(chuàng)立了一所 技術(shù)學(xué)校，這所學(xué)?，F(xiàn)在是卡內(nèi)基 梅隆大學(xué)的一部分；其他的慈善捐贈(zèng)有為促進(jìn)國(guó)家間了 解的 卡內(nèi)基國(guó)際和平基金 ，為科學(xué)研究提供經(jīng)費(fèi)的華盛頓卡內(nèi)基學(xué)院以及給各種藝術(shù)活動(dòng) 提供活動(dòng)中心的卡內(nèi)基音樂(lè)廳。安德魯 卡內(nèi)基的慷慨大度幾乎影響到每個(gè)美國(guó)人的 生活。 由于他超過(guò)五百萬(wàn)美元的捐款， 2500個(gè)圖書(shū)館得以建立起來(lái)，遍布在美國(guó)各地的小村鎮(zhèn)， 形成了我們今天還在享用的公共圖書(shū)館系統(tǒng)的核心。 ★ 08 American Revolution The Amer