【正文】 bon single bond in which the atoms or groups of atoms on one carbon are as close as possible to the atoms or groups of atoms on an adjacent carbonDihedral angle (Q): the angle created by two intersecting planesEthane as a function of dihedral angleconformations of butane as a function of dihedral angleCyclopropaneangle strain: the CCC bond angles are pressed from 176。 that is, to rotate one carbon by 90176。 H: a hydrogen bonded to a 1176。hler produced ureaa pound known to be excreted by mammals by heating ammonium cyanate, an inorganic mineral. For the first time, an “organic” pound had been obtained from something other than a living organism and certainly without the aid of any kind of vital force. Clearly，chemists needed a new definition for “organic pounds.” The importance of Organic Chemistry What is Organic Chemistry?Organic chemistry is the study of carbon pounds. Thus Organic pounds are now defined as pounds that contain carbon.What makes carbon so special? Why are there so many carboncontaining pounds? The answer lies in carbon’s position in the periodic table. Carbon is in the center of the second row of elements. The atoms to the left of carbon have a tendency to give up electrons, whereas the atoms to the right have a tendency to accept electrons.Because carbon is in the middle, it neither readily gives up nor readily accepts electrons. Instead, it shares electrons. Carbon can share electrons with several different kinds of atoms, and it can also share electrons with other carbon atoms. Consequently, carbon is able to form millions of stable pounds with a wide range of chemical properties simply by sharing electrons. The distribution of Organic pounds:(1)All of the molecules that make life possible—proteins, enzymes, vitamins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids—contain carbon, so the chemical reactions that take place in living systems, including our own bodies, are organic reactions.(2)Most of the pounds found in nature—those we rely on for food, medicine, clothing (cotton, wool, silk), and energy (natural gas, petroleum)—are organic as well.(3)Important organic pounds are not, however, limited to the ones we find in nature. Chemists have learned to synthesize millions of organic pounds never found in nature, including synthetic fabrics, plastics, synthetic rubber, medicines, and even things like photographic film and Super glue. Many of these synthetic pounds prevent shortages of naturally occurring products. How to study Organic ChemistryOrganic chemistry is a study of the relationship between the structure of molecules and their reaction.If you expect to learn organic chemistry well, you must draw and redraw the structures of pounds and write out equations as you are studying.To study effectively, you should read the assignments before attending lectures. Spend most of you study time working out the problems. Work all of the problems, no matter how simple they seem, in writing and in full detail.In addition, the study guide contains concept maps, which are summaries of important ideas presented in outline form. Covalent Bonding amp。 the position of equilibrium for an endergonic reaction favors starting materialsa change in Gibbs free energy is directly related to chemical equilibriumsummary of the relationships between ΔG0, ΔH0, ΔS0, and the position of chemical equilibriumEnergy DiagramsEnthalpy change, ΔH0: the difference in total bond energy between reactants and productsa measure of bond making (exothermic) and bond breaking (endothermic)Heat of reaction, ΔH0: the difference in enthalpy between reactants and productsexothermic reaction: a reaction in which the enthalpy of the products is lower than that of the reactants。 H: a hydrogen bonded to a 2176。《有機(jī)化學(xué)》課程講義（適用于化學(xué)教育、應(yīng)用化學(xué)、化學(xué)工程專業(yè)）溫梅姣 編寫教 化學(xué)與資源環(huán)境學(xué)院二〇一〇年七月1Organic ChemistryContentsChapter 1 Introduction………………………………………………………………1 The development of Organic Chemistry as a science………………………1 The importance of Organic Chemistry………………………………………1 How to study Organic Chemistry……………………………………………2 Covalent Bonding amp。 carbonTertiary (3176。 a reaction in which heat is releasedendothermic reaction: a reaction in which the enthalpy of the products is higher than that of the reactants。 H: a hydrogen bonded to a 3176。ns Jakob Berzelius gave names to the two kinds of materials. Compounds derived from living organisms were believed to contain an unmeasurable vital force—the essence of life. These he called ‘inorganic’. Compounds derived from mineralsthose lacking that vital forcewere “inorganic”.(3) In 1816, Michel Chevreul found that soap, prepared by the reaction of alkali with animal fat, could be separated into several pure organic pounds, which he termed fatty acid. For the first time, one organic substance (fat) was converted into others (fatty acids plus glycerin) without the intervention of an outside vital force.（4）In 1828 when Friedrich W246。 carbonSecondary (2176。 with respect to the other so that there is no overlap between 2p orbitals on adjacent carbonsCis,Trans Isomerism in AlkenesCis,trans isomers: isomers that have the same connectivity but a different arrangement of their atoms in space due to the presence of either a ring or a carboncarbon double bondIUPAC Nomenclature1. Number the longest chain of carbon atoms that contains the double bond in the direction that gives the carbons of the double bond the lowest numbers2. Locate the double bond by the number of its first carbon3. Name substituents4. Number the carbon, locate and name substituents, locate the double bond, and name the main chainCommon NamesDespite the precision and universal acceptance of IUPAC nomenclature, some alkenes, particularly lowmolecularweight ones, are known almost exclusively by thei