【正文】 s managing director has been European and the president of the World Bank has been from the United States. However, this standard is increasingly being questioned and petition for these two posts may soon open up to include other qualified candidates from any part of the world. Executive Directors, who confirm the managing director, are voted in by Finance Ministers from countries they represent. The First Deputy Managing Director of the IMF, the secondinmand, has traditionally been (and is today) an American. The IMF is for the most part controlled by the major Western Powers, with voting rights on the Executive board based on a quota derived from the relative size of a country in the global economy. Critics claim that the board rarely votes and passes issues contradicting the will of the US or Europeans, which bined represent the largest bloc of shareholders in the Fund. On the other hand, Executive Directors that represent emerging and developing countries have many times strongly defended the group of nations in their constituency. Alexandre Kafka, who represented several Latin American countries for 32 years as Executive Director (including 21 as the dean of the Board), is a prime example. Mohamed Finaish from Libya, the Executive Director representing the majority of the Arab World and Pakistan, was a tireless defender[citation needed] of the developing nations39。n CarstensGuillermo Ortiz31778 Netherlands. Wellink. van Geest51874 Russian FederationAleksei KudrinSergey Ignatiev59704 Saudi ArabiaIbrahim A. AlAssafHamad AlSayari70105 SpainPedro SolbesMiguel Fern225。此種平價(jià)制度就是“可調(diào)整的盯住匯率”。后來(lái)，基金已慢慢放寬會(huì)員國(guó)對(duì)于資金利用的限制，以配合實(shí)際的需要。 　　IMF對(duì)成員國(guó)的貸款申請(qǐng)，始終是很慎重的，對(duì)那些已陷入危機(jī)而需巨額援助的成員國(guó)，更會(huì)附上嚴(yán)厲的貸款條件。貸款條件優(yōu)惠，年利率僅為 0．5％～1％，期限一般為10年，且有5年寬限期，貸款最高限額為份額的70％。設(shè)立于1969年6月，是一種為幫助初級(jí)產(chǎn)品出口國(guó)家維持庫(kù)存從而穩(wěn)定物價(jià)而發(fā)放的貸款。亦稱(chēng)普通提款權(quán)，是IMF最基本的貸款，期限不超過(guò)5年，主要用于成員國(guó)彌補(bǔ)國(guó)際收支逆差。 　　(2)在個(gè)別國(guó)家基礎(chǔ)上的監(jiān)督。1992年調(diào)整擴(kuò)大后。執(zhí)行董事會(huì)的職權(quán)主要有：接受理事會(huì)委托定期處理各種政策和行政事務(wù)，向理事會(huì)提交年度報(bào)告，并隨時(shí)對(duì)成員國(guó)經(jīng)濟(jì)方面的重大問(wèn)題，特別是有關(guān)國(guó)際金融方面的問(wèn)題進(jìn)行全面研究。 　　1976年3月22日，國(guó)際貨幣基金第6次決定增資，于1978年4月1日正式實(shí)施。其職能為匯率監(jiān)督、資金融通、提供國(guó)際貨幣合作與協(xié)商的場(chǎng)所。基金會(huì)的最高權(quán)力機(jī)構(gòu)為理事會(huì)，每個(gè)會(huì)員國(guó)均可派任理事一名，通常由各該國(guó)的財(cái)政部長(zhǎng)或中央銀行總裁參加擔(dān)任。因此，增資以后，國(guó)際上的流通性就趨擴(kuò)充，至于新創(chuàng)造特別條款，也在增加國(guó)際流動(dòng)性。 　　基金組織除理事會(huì)、執(zhí)行董事會(huì)、臨時(shí)委員會(huì)和發(fā)展委員會(huì)外，其內(nèi)部還有兩大利益集團(tuán)，即“七國(guó)集團(tuán)”(代表發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家利益)和“廿四國(guó)集團(tuán)”(代表發(fā)展中國(guó)家利益)，以及其他常設(shè)職能部門(mén)。然后按成員國(guó)所認(rèn)繳份額的量，每10萬(wàn)特別提款權(quán)折合票，成員國(guó)認(rèn)繳的份額越多，所獲票數(shù)也就越多，表決權(quán)也就越大。 　　磋商與協(xié)調(diào) 　　為了能夠履行監(jiān)督成員國(guó)匯率政策的責(zé)任，了解成員國(guó)的經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展?fàn)顩r和政策措施，迅速處理成員國(guó)申請(qǐng)貸款的要求，IMF按基金協(xié)定規(guī)定，每年原則上應(yīng)與成員國(guó)進(jìn)行一次磋商，對(duì)成員國(guó)的經(jīng)濟(jì)、金融形勢(shì)和政策作出評(píng)價(jià)。這是1974年設(shè)立的，用于成員國(guó)因在生產(chǎn)、貿(mào)易等方面存在結(jié)構(gòu)性問(wèn)題而進(jìn)行較長(zhǎng)期調(diào)整的一項(xiàng)專(zhuān)用貸款。設(shè)立于1976年1月，用于援助低收入的發(fā)展中國(guó)家。 　?、嶂贫绒D(zhuǎn)型貸款(systemic transformation facility)。但對(duì)具體的受援國(guó)來(lái)講，這些條件和措施是良藥還是劣藥，可能還得作具體分析。 　　（3）對(duì)會(huì)員國(guó)有提供資料和建議的作用:我國(guó)在基金的歷史較早，1944年的布雷敦森林會(huì)議我國(guó)便是與會(huì)44國(guó)之一，并作為大國(guó)而攤額十分龐大，僅次于美國(guó)的275億美元及英國(guó)的130億美元，而為55億美元，與美、英、法、印度并列入攤額最大的國(guó)家。 European Union institutions: o the European Central Bank for the Eurozone – SDDS o Eurostat for the whole EU – SDDS, thus providing data from Cyprus (not using any DDSystem on its own) and Malta (using only GDDS on its own) [編輯]Membership qualifications Any country may apply for membership to the IMF. The application will be considered first by the IMF39。 earliest data published by the World Bank is for 1970. Debt at end of dictatorship (or 1996, most recent date for World Bank data). [編輯]Criticism Two criticisms from economists have been that financial aid is always bound to socalled Conditionalities, including Structural Adjustment Programs. Conditionalities, which are the economic performance targets established as a precondition for IMF loans, it is claimed, retard social stability and hence inhibit the stated goals of the IMF, while Structural Adjustment Programs lead to an increase in poverty in recipient countries.[10] Typically the IMF and its supporters advocate a Keynesian approach. As such, adherents of supplyside economics generally find themselves in open disagreement with the IMF. The IMF frequently advocates currency devaluation, criticized by proponents of supplyside economics as inflationary. Secondly they link higher taxes under austerity programmes with economic contraction. Currency devaluation is remended by the IMF to the governments of poor nations with struggling economies. Supplyside economists claim these Keynesian IMF policies are destructive to economic prosperity. That said, the IMF sometimes advocates austerity programmes, increasing taxes even when the economy is weak, in order to generate government revenue and balance budget deficits, which is the opposite of Keynesian policy. These policies were criticised by Joseph E. Stiglitz, former chief economist and Senior Vice President at the World Bank, in his book Globalization and Its Discontents.[11] He argued that by converting to a more Monetarist approach, the fund no longer had a valid purpose, as it was designed to provide funds for countries to carry out Keynesian reflations, and that the IMF was not participating in a conspiracy, but it was reflecting the interests and ideology of the Western financial munity.[12] Complaints are also directed toward International Monetary Fund gold reserve being undervalued. At its inception in 1945, the IMF pegged gold at US$35 per Troy ounce of gold. In 1973 the Nixon administration lifted the fixed asset value of gold in favor of a world market price. Hence the fixed exchange rates of currencies tied to gold were switched to a floating rate, also based on market price and exchange. This largely came about because Petrodollars outside the United States were more than could be backed by the gold at Fort Knox under the fixed exchange rate system. The fixed rate system only served to limit the amount of assistance the organization could use to help debtridden countries. Current IMF rules prohibit members from linking their currencies to gold.[citation needed] Argentina, which had been considered by the IMF to be a model country in its pliance to policy proposals by the Bretton Woods institutions, experienced a catastrophic economic crisis in 2001 , which some believe to