【正文】 Hest er conveys a mult ipl e of senses whi ch dif fer greatl y fr om what i t lit eral y stands for , and t he work eventual y develops i nto a t est and cri ti que of symbols t hem selves. Thomas Pynchon’s V. conti nues along m uch t he sam e li ne, testi ng an alphabeti cal symbol. Another exampl e is Her man Mel vil le’s Moby Dick, in which t he huge whi te whal e in t he ti tl e of the book acquir es greater meaning t han t he li teral dict ionar ydef init ion of an aquat ic m am mal. I t al so suggest s more t han the devil, t o whom some of t he char act er s li ken it . The huge whale, as the stor y unfolds, es t o i mply an ampl it ude of m eanings: am ong them t he for ces of nature and t he whole univer se. Lit erary symbol s ar e of two broad t ypes: one t ype i ncl udes t hose embodying uni versal suggesti ons of m eaning. Flowi ng water suggest s ti me and eter nity, a j our ney into the under worl d and r et urn f r om i t i s int er pret ed as a spir i tual experi ence or a dark ni ght of the soul, and a kind of r edempt ive odyssey. Such symbol s are used wi del y (and someti mes unconsci ously) i n west er n l it er atur e. The ot her type of sym bol secur es i ts suggesti veness not f rom qual it ies inherent in it self but fr om the way i n which i t is used in a gi ven work, in a special cont ext. Thus, i n MobyDi ck the voyage, t he l and, and the ocean are objects pr egnant wit h meanings that seem al most i ndependent of the author ’s use of t hem i n the st or y。 of tr ansit ive or i nt ransit ive verb constr uct ions) ? Ar e there any unusual order ings (i nit ial adverbi al s, f ront ing of object or plement, etc) ? Do speci al ki nds of clause constr uct ion occur (such as t hose wi th prepar ator y it or t here) ? Noun phrases: Ar e they r el atively si mple or pl ex? Wher e does the plexit y li e ( in pr em odi fi cat ion by adjecti ves, nouns, et c, or i n post modif icati on by preposi ti on by preposi ti onal phrases, rel at ive clauses, etc)? Ver b phrases: Ar e there any signif i cant depart ures f rom the use of the simpl e past tense? For example, not ice occur r ences and f unct ions of the pr esent tense, of the progr essive aspect, of the per fect aspect , of m odal auxi li ar ies. ot her phr ase t ypes: Is t her e anyt hing t o be sai d about other phrases t ypes, such as preposi ti onal phrases, adver b phrases, adj ect ive phrases? Word cl asses: Having alr eady considered maj or wor d cl asses, we may consi der m inor word cl ases (eg f unct ional wor ds), such as pr eposit ions, conjunct ions, pr onouns, det er mi ner s, auxil iari es, int erj ecti ons. Ar e par t icular words of these types used f or par ti cul ar ef fect (eg demonst rat ives such as thi s and that, negat ives such as not, nothing)? Gener al: Note whet her any gener al t ypes of gr am mati cal constr ucti on ar e used to speci al ef f ect ( eg par at i ve or superl at ive const ructi ons, coor dinati ve or l isti ng const ructi ons, par ent het ical constr uct ions, i nter ject ions and aft er thoughts as occur i n causal speech). And see to the number of list s and coordi nat ions. Fi gur es of Speech Here we consider the f eat ures which ar e for egr ounded by vi rt ue of depart ing i n som e way f rom general norm s of m uni cat ion by m eans of the l anguage code, for exam pl e, exploi tati on of deviat ions fr om the li ngui stic code. Gr amm at ical and l exi cal schemes ( for egr ounded r epet it ons of expressi on): Ar e there any cases of f ormal and st r uct ur al repet it ion ( anaphora, par al el ism, etc) or of mir ror i mage pat ter ns (chiasmus) ? I s the r het ori cal ef ect of these one of anti thesis, r einf or cem ent , cl im ax, anti cl imax, etc? Phonol ogi cal schemes: Are there any phonol ogi cal pat er ns of rhyme, ali ter at ion, asonance, et c? Ar e t her e any sal ient rhythmi cal pat erns? Do vowels and consonant sounds pat ern or cluster i n par ti cul ar ways? How do these phonologi cal featur es inter act wi th m eani ng? Tr opes ( f or egr ounded ir r egular it ies of cont ent ): Ar e there any obvious viol at ions of or neol ogi sm s fr om t he li ngui st ic code? For example, are t her e any neol ogi sms ( such as “por tentous inf ant s”) ? Ar e there any semanti c, synt act ic, phonologi cal , or gr aphological devi at ions? Such deviat ions are of ten t he cl ue to speci al i nter pr etati ons associ at ed wit h t radit ional f igur es of speech such as m etaphor , metonymy, synecdoche, paradox, and ir ony. I f such t ropes occur, what kind of special i nt erpr et at ion i s involved ( for example, metaphor can be classi fi ed as per sonif ying, ani mali zing, concreti zing, synaest het ic, et c)? Context and cohesion Her e we t ake a look at features whi ch are gener al y ful ly dealt wi th i n discourse anal ysi s. Under cohesion ways in which one part of a text is l inked to anot her are considered。 in Ernest Hem ingway’s “A Cl ean, Wel l Lighted Pl ace” is not mer el y a caf233。 on the other hand, t he white whal e is invest ed wit h dif fer ent meanings for dif f er ent cr ew members t hrough t he handli ng of materi a ls i n the novel. Simi lar ly, in Hem ingway’s A Far ewel l to Ar ms, r ai n, whi ch is general y r egarded as a symbol of l if e ( especi al ly in spri ng) , and which i s a mi ldly annoying m et eor ological phenomenon in t he openi ng chapter, i s convert ed int o a sym bol of deat h t hr ough the uses t o whi ch it is put i n the wor k. 3. Symbol s in f ict ion are i nani mate obj ect s Of ten symbols we meet i n fi cti on ar e i nanim at e objects. In Wil li am Faulker’s “A Rose for Em il y, ” Mi s Emil y’s i nvi si ble but per cept ible watch ti cking at the end of a golden chai n not onl y indicates t he passage of t im e, but suggest s that ti me pases wi