【正文】 n the project flowing smoothly, whereas poorly drafted contracts lead to confusion and collapse.翻譯：建設(shè)工程項(xiàng)目是一個(gè)復(fù)雜的網(wǎng)絡(luò)的合同及其他法律義務(wù)，每一個(gè)都必須仔細(xì)考慮。推力是任何力量，增加物體的速度。Lesson Five A column in structural engineering is a vertical structural element that transmits, through pression, the weight of the structure above to other structural elements below. For the purpose of wind or earthquake engineering, columns may be designed to resist lateral forces. Other pression members are often termed columns because of the similar stress conditions. Columns are frequently used to support beams or arches on which the upper parts of walls or ceilings rest. In architecture column refers to such a structural element that also has certain proportional and decorative features. A column might also be a decorative or triumphant feature but need nor be supporting any structure . A statue on top.一列在結(jié)構(gòu)工程是一個(gè)垂直結(jié)構(gòu)元素傳輸，通過(guò)壓縮，結(jié)構(gòu)重量以上的其他結(jié)構(gòu)元件下面。樓層不同從簡(jiǎn)單的污垢山洞中多層次的表面使用現(xiàn)代技術(shù)。但完成結(jié)構(gòu)并不作為一個(gè)懸臂。可以想像，標(biāo)本（通常圓柱形）縮短，以及橫向蔓延。28英譯漢Lesson OneSandcrete is a yellowwhite building material made from Portland cement and sand in a ratio of circa 1: is the main building material for walls of singlestorey buildings (such as houses and schools)in countries such as Ghana and Nigeria. Measured strengths fo mercially available Sandcrete blocks in Nigeria were found to be between and 1 N/mm,which is well below the N/mm that is legally required there. This may be due to the need of the manufacturers to keep the price low,and since the main costfactor is the Portland cement, they reduce that, which results in a block that starts behaving more like loose sand.翻譯：sandcrete是黃白色建筑材料制成的波特蘭水泥和沙子的比例大約1: （如房屋和學(xué)校）在加納和尼日利亞等國(guó)家。一般來(lái)說(shuō)，通常是更大的抗壓強(qiáng)度比抗拉強(qiáng)度。這是非常有用的當(dāng)臨時(shí)支架，或支架，不能用來(lái)支持結(jié)構(gòu)，它正在建立（例如，在一個(gè)繁忙的道路或河流，或在冷泉谷）。地板可能是石，求愛，竹，金屬，或任何材料，可容納一個(gè)人的體重。用于風(fēng)或地震工程，列可能被設(shè)計(jì)抵抗側(cè)向力。拖動(dòng)任何力量下降的速度的任何物體。合同交換是一套義務(wù)雙方或多方之間，但它不是那么簡(jiǎn)單的問題，試圖讓對(duì)方同意盡可能多盡可能少的交換。Ordinary Portland Cement,39。最常見的用途是在波特蘭水泥混凝土生產(chǎn)。第十一課原文： Permissible stress design (in USA constriction more monly called allowable stress design) is a design philosophy used by civil engineers. The designer ensures that the stresses developed in a structure due to service load s do not exceed the elastic limit. This limit is usually determined bu ensuring that stresses remain within the limits through the use of factors of safety . The permissible stress design approach has generally been replaced internationally by limit state design (also known as ultimate stress design,or in USA , Load and Resistance Factor Design, LRFD) as far as structural engineering is considered,except for some isolated cases.翻譯：容許應(yīng)力設(shè)計(jì)（在美國(guó)收縮更通常被稱為容許應(yīng)力設(shè)計(jì)）是一種設(shè)計(jì)理念，使用的土木工程師。在這些情況下，解決方案是基于研究和解釋的測(cè)量，并按照既定程序解決差異。第十四課原文： Wall framing in house construction includes the vertical and horizontal members of exterior walls and interior partitions,both of bearing walls and nonbearing stick members, referred to as studs, wall plates and lintels (headers), serve as a nailing base for all covering material and support the upper floor platforms, which provide the lateral strength along a wall .The platforms may be the boxed structure of a ceiling and roof, or the ceiling and floor joists of the story above .The technique is variously referred to colloquially in the building trades as stick and box as orstick and platform,or stick and box as the sticks (studs) give the structure its vertical support ,and the box shaped floor sections with joists contained within lengthlong post and lintels (more monly called headers ),supports the weight of whatever is above ,including the next wall up and the roof above the top story. The planform ,also provides the lateral support against wind and winds the stick walls true and square .Any lower platform supports the weight of the platform and walls above the level of its ponent headers and joists.翻譯：墻框架房屋建設(shè)包括縱向和橫向的成員外墻及室內(nèi)隔斷，既承重墻和非承重墻。繁殖速度的地震波的范圍從大約3公里/秒高達(dá)13公里/秒，取決于密度和彈性介質(zhì)。Yield strength is the stress at which material strain changes from elastic deformation to plastic deformation(the material is caused to deform permanently).3） 由于應(yīng)力作用區(qū)的碳原子的相互作用和脫位，有些鋼材在屈服強(qiáng)度后出現(xiàn)應(yīng)力下降的現(xiàn)象。after the end of the relaxation of prestressed concrete beams ,the beam was subjected to eccentric pressure. Lesson 4 truss 桁架1) 認(rèn)為外力和反力僅作用在節(jié)點(diǎn)上，從而使桿件內(nèi)產(chǎn)生拉力或壓力。Surveying or land surveying is the technique and science of accurately determining the terrestrial or threedimensional space position of points and the distances and angles between then. 有史以來(lái)，測(cè)量就是人文環(huán)境發(fā)展的一個(gè)主要因素，而且也用于幾乎所有結(jié)構(gòu)的規(guī)劃和施工。As their mass is extremely small their behavior is governed b7 force of electrostatic attraction and repulsion on their surfaces. 有效應(yīng)力是對(duì)土骨架應(yīng)力的測(cè)度，且決定了土的抗剪能力。s ability to sustain their due functions, such as its safety and serviceability, at and after a particular earthquake exposure. 工程師必須知曉建筑物受到特定地面震動(dòng)后真實(shí)或預(yù)計(jì)的抗震性能水平。Earthquake or seismic performance is an execution of a building39。Although, the amount of nonclay material is greater than that if clay and organic material, the latter have a greater influence in the behavior of soils. 初始條件決定了具有高空隙率的新近堆積土或新壓實(shí)土的結(jié)構(gòu)。In order to determine the critical load for this column,the pressed column is displaced as shown in following picture.4) 柱的臨界壓應(yīng)力隨其長(zhǎng)細(xì)比的增大而減小，隨其回轉(zhuǎn)半徑的增大而增大Critical pression stress of the column always decreases with increasing column slenderness ratio, and increases with increasing radius of gyration.5) 使柱可能發(fā)生屈曲的最小力為歐拉臨界荷載The minimum force made column may be buckling is the critical load of Euler.Lesson 6 fundamental principles of structural analysis（基本原則的結(jié)構(gòu)分析）1） 結(jié)構(gòu)模型應(yīng)盡可能準(zhǔn)確地反映其真實(shí)材料、結(jié)構(gòu)構(gòu)造、荷載和邊界條件The structure model should relate the actual behavior to material properties,structure details,loading,and boundary condition as accurately as is practicable.2） 對(duì)受對(duì)稱荷載作用的規(guī)則結(jié)構(gòu)，可將其理想化為構(gòu)件相互正交的二維框架For structures that have a regular layout and are rectangular in shape,it is possible to idealize them into twodimensional frames arranged in orthogonal directions.