【正文】 mple upon which it is based. The design of the experiment is critical. A number of unexpected effects have been observed including: ? The Clever Hans effect. A horse appeared to be capable of doing simple arithmetic. ? The Hawthorne effect. Industrial workers were more productive in better illumination, and most productive in worse. ? The Placebo effect. Pills with no medically active ingredients were remarkably effective. A statistical analysis of misleading data produces misleading conclusions. The issue of data quality can be more subtle. In forecasting for example, there is no agreement on a measure of forecast accuracy. In the absence of a consensus measurement, no decision based on measurements will be without controversy. The book How to Lie with Statistics is the most popular book on statistics ever published.[28] It does not much consider hypothesis testing, but its cautions are applicable, including: Many claims are made on the basis of samples too small to convince. If a report does not mention sample size, be doubtful. Hypothesis testing acts as a filter of statistical conclusions。r amp。那句 “有意義的測(cè)試 ”是由羅納德 其他的方法，通過決策理論和最優(yōu)決策達(dá)到通過數(shù)據(jù)分析得出結(jié)論的目的。 T檢驗(yàn)是適用于比較寬松的條件 下（較少假定）的手段。確定曲線形狀，以盡量減少均方誤差這是常見的。 3. 第二步是去考慮統(tǒng)計(jì)假說關(guān)于正在做的測(cè)試的統(tǒng)計(jì)假設(shè)的制定，舉個(gè)例子，關(guān)于統(tǒng)計(jì)獨(dú)立性的假設(shè)或關(guān)于觀測(cè)值的分配 形式的假設(shè)。如果觀 測(cè)時(shí)值落在了臨界域則拒絕零假設(shè) HO，接受或拒絕其他的假設(shè)。 選擇戒煙的最佳手段。一匹馬似乎是能夠做簡(jiǎn)單的算術(shù)題。在一個(gè)共識(shí)測(cè)量情況下，沒有基于測(cè)量的決定是毫無爭(zhēng)議的。關(guān)于統(tǒng)計(jì)通常的建議是，數(shù)字不會(huì)說謊，但騙子會(huì)數(shù)字。通過審查，美國(guó)心理協(xié)會(huì)已經(jīng)加強(qiáng)了 對(duì)統(tǒng)計(jì)報(bào)表的要求，醫(yī)學(xué)雜志出版商已經(jīng)意識(shí)到有義務(wù)出版一些沒有統(tǒng)計(jì)學(xué)意義的結(jié)果以打擊發(fā)表偏倚。r,. (2021). Chapter 12: Modelling. In . Ad232。 Freedman, David A. (2021). Reference Guide on Statistics. Reference manual on scientific evidence (3rd ed.). Eagan, MN Washington, : West National Academies Press. p. 259. ISBN 9780309214216. [5] C. S. Peirce (August 1878). Illustrations of the Logic of Science VI: Deduction, Induction, and Hypothesis. Popular Science Monthly 13. [6] Fisher, Sir Ronald A. (1956) [1935]. Mathematics of a Lady Tasting Tea. In James Roy Newman. The World of Mathematics, volume 3 [Design of Experiments]. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 9780486411514. [7] Box, Joan Fisher (1978). . Fisher, The Life of a Scientist. New York: Wiley. p. 134. ISBN 0471093009 [8] Lehmann, .。以下的部分極大的凝聚了尼克森的討論，省略了許多問題。 濟(jì)南大學(xué) 泉城學(xué)院 畢業(yè)論文 外文資料翻譯 9 基于假設(shè)檢驗(yàn)結(jié)果的關(guān)鍵決策更著重細(xì)節(jié)的觀察而不僅僅是結(jié)論本身。數(shù)據(jù)質(zhì)量問題，可以更加微妙。 注意事項(xiàng) 成功的假設(shè)檢驗(yàn)是與概率和第一類錯(cuò)誤率相聯(lián)系的，結(jié)論可能是錯(cuò)誤的 。 確定蝙蝠可以用回聲捕捉昆蟲的范圍。 7. 零假設(shè)下統(tǒng)計(jì)檢驗(yàn)的分布把 T 的可能值分布到零假設(shè)被拒絕的區(qū)域，這就是關(guān)鍵域，他不是 T 的可能值，臨界域的概率是 a. 8. 觀測(cè)計(jì)算檢驗(yàn)統(tǒng)計(jì)量 T 的觀測(cè)值 t。 2. 第一步是去聲明相關(guān)的零假設(shè)和被擇假設(shè)。 卡方檢驗(yàn)用來確定適合數(shù)據(jù)的曲線充足。通常情況下成員之間的差異相比為零。假設(shè)檢驗(yàn)的用途之一就是去決定實(shí)驗(yàn)的結(jié)果是否有足夠得信息去懷疑傳統(tǒng)的智慧。顯著性檢驗(yàn) 引言 統(tǒng)計(jì)假設(shè)檢驗(yàn)是一種利用數(shù)據(jù)做決策的方法，無論是在有控制的實(shí)驗(yàn)還是在沒有控制的觀察性研究中都有實(shí)用。 Romano, Joseph P. (2021). Testing Statistical Hypotheses (3E ed.). New York: Springer. ISBN 0387988645. [9] Ad232。 Test of significance Introduction A statistical hypothesis test is a method of making decisions using data, whether from a controlled experiment or an observational study (not controlled). In statistics, a result is called statistically significant if it is unlikely to have occurred by chance alone, according to a predetermined threshold probability, the significance level. The phrase test of significance was coined by Ronald Fisher: Critical tests of this kind may be called tests of significance, and when such tests are available we may discover whether a second sample is or is not significantly different from the first.[1] Hypothesis testing is sometimes called confirmatory data analysis, in contrast to exploratory data analysis. In frequency probability, these decisions are almost always made using nullhypothesis tests. These are tests that answer the question Assuming that the null hypothesis is true, what is the probability of observing a value