【正文】 nd farmed in Jutland, came to Britain first. A Jutish chief became the King of Kent in 449. Then the Saxons, users of the shortsword from northern Germany, established their kingdom in Essex, Sussex and Wessex from the end of the 5th century to the beginning of the 6th century. In the second half of the 6th century. In the second half of the 6th century, the Angles, who also came from northern Germany and were to give their name to the English people, settled in East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria. These seven principal kingdoms of Kent, Essex, Sussex, Wessex, East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria have been given the name of Heptarchy. 五世紀(jì)中葉，朱特人、撒克遜人和盎格魯人不斷入侵不列顛。六世紀(jì)后半葉，同樣來自德國(guó)北部的盎格魯人，在東盎格利亞、麥西亞以及諾森伯利來定居，同時(shí)也他們也把名字給了英國(guó)人。除了康瓦爾、威爾士、蘇格蘭和愛爾蘭中的克爾特人還信奉基督教外，基督教很快就消失了。但是普通人的皈依很大程度上歸功于北部修士們的傳教活動(dòng)。其次，他們?cè)O(shè)計(jì)的窄條三圃田農(nóng)耕制延用至 18世紀(jì)。 9世紀(jì)，尤其是公元835878年間已成為嚴(yán)重問題。他打敗了丹麥人，并于公元 879 年與他們達(dá)成了友好協(xié)議。他改組了 “ 弗立德 ” （撒克遜軍隊(duì)），使之更為高效。 ” 的稱號(hào)。 2． The Norman Conquest and its consequences 諾曼征服及其產(chǎn)生的影響。于是，封建制度在英國(guó)完全建立。許多英國(guó)人的祖先是古盎格魯和撒克遜人。s Rule （ 10661087） 威廉一世的統(tǒng)治（公元 10661087） England39。s produce. ④These estates were scattered far and wide over the country, so that those who held them could not easily bine to rebel the king. ⑤The barons, who had bee William39。 ③ 威廉把英國(guó)的大片土地分給貴族，條件是換取對(duì)方服役和收租。 ⑦ 英國(guó)封建制獨(dú)有的特色就是，無論是土地承租人還是二佃戶，都必須要宣誓效忠于直接領(lǐng)主，而且要效忠于國(guó)王。 demolished many castles built in Stephen’s time。 King Henry II greatly strengthened the Court and extended its judicial work. He divided the whole country into six circuits and appointed justices to each. Cases were therefore heard before the intermittent justices who applied the law impartially. During his reign, a mon law was gradually established in place of the previous laws of the local barons. He also introduced a new jury system to replace the old ordealbased trial system. Besides, he shifted the trial of clergymen charged with criminal offenses from the Bishop39。s court. 亨利二世大大加強(qiáng)了王家法院，擴(kuò)展了其司法工作的職權(quán)范圍。另外，他用陪審員制度代替了舊的殘酷的審判制度。 (3) the Church should possess all its rights, together with freedom of elections。《大憲章》的精神是限制國(guó)王權(quán)力，使其在英國(guó)封建法律允許的范圍內(nèi)活動(dòng)。其作用是咨詢而非決定；也沒有選舉和政黨。 War and its consequences. 百年戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)及其結(jié)果 The Hundred Years’ War refers to the war between England and France that lasted intermittently from 1337 to 1453. The causes of the war were partly territorial and partly economic. The territorial causes were related with the possession by the English kings of the large duchy in France, while the French kings coveted this large slice. The economic causes were connected with cloth manufacturing towns in Flanders, which were the importer of English wool, but they were loyal to the French king politically. Besides, England39。s being driven out of France is regarded as a blessing for both countries. If the English had remained in France, the superior size and wealth of France would have hindered the development of a separate English national identity, while France was hindered so long as a foreign power occupied so much French territory. 百年戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)指 1337年到 1453年英法之間一 場(chǎng)斷斷續(xù)續(xù)的戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)，戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)的起因既有領(lǐng)土因素又有經(jīng)濟(jì)因素。其他原因還有英國(guó)試圖阻止法國(guó)幫助蘇格蘭人，以及不斷覺醒的民族意識(shí)。s population from four million to two million by the end of the 14th century. The economic consequences of the Black Death were farreaching. As a result of the plague, much land was left untended and there was a terrible shortage of labour. The surviving peasants had better bargaining power and were in a position to change their serfdom into paid labour. Some landlords, unable or unwilling to pay higher wages, tried to force peasants back into serfdom. In 1351 the government issued a Statute of Labourers which made it a crime for peasants to ask for more wages or for their employers to pay more than the rates laid down by the Justices of the Peace. 黑死病是指由鼠疫蚤傳播的致命的淋巴腺鼠疫，是一種流行疾病，在 14 世紀(jì)傳播了到歐洲。鼠疫導(dǎo)致了大片土地?zé)o人照管和勞動(dòng)力極度匱乏。 1351年政府頒布 “ 勞工法令 ” ，規(guī)定農(nóng)民們漲工資的要求，或者是雇主支付比地方官制訂的工資水平要高的工資都是犯罪。泰勒在又一次與國(guó)王的會(huì)見中被殺死。 第四章 向現(xiàn)代英國(guó)的過渡 Transition to the Modern Age Chapter 4： Transition to the Modern Age (14551688) 向現(xiàn)代英國(guó)的過渡 I. Transition to the Modern Age (14551485) 向現(xiàn)代英國(guó)的過渡 (1455年 1485 年 ) The Wars of Rose 玫瑰戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng) The name Wars of the Roses was refer to the battles between the House of Lancaster, symbolized by the read rose, and that of York, symbolized by the white, from 1455 to 1485. Henry Tudor, descendant of Duke of Lancaster won victory at Bosworth Fireld in 1485 and put ht country under the rule of the Tudors. From these Wars, English feudalism received its death blow. The great medieval nobility was much weakened. 玫瑰戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)是指，從 1455 年到 1485 年，以紅玫瑰為象征的蘭開斯特大家族和以白玫瑰為象征的約克家族之間戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)的普遍接受的名稱。 the privilege and wealth of the clergy were resented。亨利八世欲與阿拉貢的凱瑟琳離婚，但是教皇拒絕了。 1534年的《繼位法》和 1535年的《至尊法案》使改革具有了可行性。 III. Elizabeth I (15581603) 伊莉莎白一世（ 1558年 1603 年） Elizabeth39。s religious reform was a promise of views. She broke Mary39。s independent Church of England, . keeping to Catholic doctrines and practices but to be free of the Papal control. He religious settlement was unacceptable to both the extreme Protestants known as Puritans and to ardent Catholics. For nearly 30 years Elizabeth successfully played off against each other the two great Catholic powers, France and Spain, and prevented England from getting involved in any major European conflict. Through her marriage alliances which were never materialized, Elizabeth managed to maintain a friendly relationship with France. So England wad able to face the danger from Spain. 伊莉莎白的宗教改革是各種觀點(diǎn)的妥協(xié)。通過她從未具體化的聯(lián)姻，伊莉莎白設(shè)法與法國(guó)維持友好關(guān)系，因此英國(guó)能面對(duì)來自西班牙的危險(xiǎn)。 4) English Renaissance coincided with the Reformation in England. 英國(guó)文藝復(fù)興的五個(gè)特點(diǎn)： 1）英國(guó)文化的復(fù)興并不是直接通過古典作 品，崦是通過受古典作品影響同時(shí)代的歐洲人實(shí)現(xiàn)的； 2）英格蘭作為一個(gè)與大陸隔離的國(guó)家，其社會(huì)歷史進(jìn)程很大程度上獨(dú)立于歐洲其它國(guó)家； 3）由于 14 世紀(jì)偉大的天才詩(shī)人喬叟的出現(xiàn)，英國(guó)本國(guó)文學(xué)得以蓬勃發(fā)展，能夠在吸收外國(guó)文學(xué)影響的同時(shí)，并未處于從屬地位； 4）英國(guó)文藝復(fù)興文學(xué)首先是藝術(shù)的，其次才是哲學(xué)的和學(xué)術(shù)的； 5）文藝復(fù)興和英格蘭的宗教改革在時(shí)間上有所交叉。 英國(guó)內(nèi)戰(zhàn)又稱為清教徒革命。英國(guó)內(nèi)戰(zhàn)通常被看作是現(xiàn)代世界史的開端。39。這就是所謂的王政復(fù)辟。英國(guó)政客反對(duì)詹姆斯二世，他們呼吁信奉新教的國(guó)王，奧蘭治親王威謙入侵英國(guó)奪取王