【正文】 vernment activities with only small modifications Conservative because it considers existing policy as a base, and new programs are ignored Believe that policies that are in effect has been proven, why alter what has proven effective G. Game Theory Study of rational decisions where one choice depends on the oute of another choice An abstract and deductive model of policy making More an analytic tool than a practical guide H. Public Choice The economic study of nonmarket decision making Recognizes government must perform certain functions that market is unable to handle Seen in elections, candidates are more concerned with winning than advancing principles I. Systems Theory Political system is a group of interrelated structures that allocate values for a society Sees public policy as an output of the political system By arranging settlements, demands are transformed into output (policies) 2. How to Tell if the Models are Helping Do they: Order and simplify reality Identify what is significant Congruent with reality Provide meaningful munication Direct inquiry and research Suggest explanations Chap 3 : Policymaking Process I. How Policies Are Made: A. Identify the problem B. Agenda Setting: focus the media on the situation C. Formulate the policy proposals D. Legitimize policies through governmental and political groups E. Implement policy through bureaucracies F. Evaluate policies by governmental agencies II. Identification: Public Opinion A. Opinionpolicy linkage: Never know if public opinion shapes policy or if policy shapes opinion. 1. PO Key established evidence that elections, parties, and interest groups do institutionalize channels of munication from citizens to decision makers. B. Policy effects: Public policy shapes public opinion more often than the reverse. 1. Public opinion is unstable 2. Few people have opinions on a great bulk of policy questions 3. Leaders do not have precise view of opinion because they hear from elites C. Media Effects: 1. News believe they are public opinion but are often wrong because they confuse their opinion with that of the public. 2. Shape public opinion by saying it is the mass opinion. 3. Decision makers respond to news because they think it is the opinion of the people. D. Opinion Polls Pollsters produce opinions because no one admits when they don’t have an opinion on a subject. E. Instability of Opinion 1. Public opinion tends to be unstable. 2. Never real changes, just appear as such F. Wording of Questions 1. Opinions vary according to the wording of the question 2. Can word things to elicit approval or disapproval G. Communicating with Policymakers 1. Decision makers can misinterpret opinion because of elite bias in information. 2. Congress world of opinion is self reinforcing 3. Those who write or call senators are usually more informed III. Identifying Policy Issues: Elite Opinion A. Elite preferences are more likely to be in accord with policy than mass opinion. B. Can be argued that decision makers are acting rationally to their argument? IV. Agenda Setting and Nondecisions A. Creating an issue, dramatizing it, calling attention to it, and pressuring government to do something about it are important political tactics, they are tactics of agenda setting. B. “Nondecision making: It occurs when influential individuals or groups or the political system itself operates in society. ? It happens when officials hide an issue because they fear it will not be in their best interest. ? When political candidates and office holders feel elites will not favor it. ? The political system itself is structured in such a way as to facilitate resolution of some issues and to obstruct others. C. “Mobilization of bias: A set of values which operate systematically and consistently to the benefit of others. V. Agenda setting and mobilizing opinion: The mass media A. Television is where a reported 2/3 of American people get their information B. Media power: ? Media is a player and referee in politics ? It sets the agenda of public discussion ? It concentrated with a small number of people ? Not much diversity in news reporting C. Newsmaking: It involves important decisions on what is news and what is worthy of reporting ? Media attention can create personalities and issues. ? It provides cues to audience on the importance of an issue, personality, or event ? Media event arranged primarily to attract coverage and thus attention D. Media Effects: ? Identifying issues and setting the agenda for policymakers ? Influencing attitudes and values toward policy issues. ? Changing behavior of voters and decision makers ? Power of TV lies in setting the agenda for decision making VI. Formulating Policy A. Policy formulation is the development of policy alternatives dealing with problems on the public agenda. B. The White House: President and the executive branch are expected to be policy initiators and Congress the arbitrators C. Interest groups: Formulate their own policy or do so in association with Congress members D. Legislative Staffs: Reflect the general view of their bosses, the research issues, schedule legislative hearings, line up expert to testify and write and rewrite bills E. Think Tanks: Policy planning anizations are central in coordinating points in policymaking。 Deficits Deficits and entitlements Politics of deficits Formal Budgetary Process amp。 energy Clinton and Reps agree to middle class tax cut in 1997 Tax Reform and the Flat Tax Flat taxeliminate exemptions, exclusions, deductions,