【正文】 r Plato it is the eternal Ideas, for Aristotle, it is human action or human society, for Horace it is the Greek masterpieces, for the neoPlatonists such as Plotinus it is the One, for 18th century neoclassicism it is human nature. 1. 古者包犧氏之望天下也，仰則觀象于天，俯則觀法于地，觀鳥獸之文與地之宜，近取諸身，遠(yuǎn)取諸物，于是始作八卦 。（《周易正義》卷八） In ancient times, when Paohsi ruled over the world, he lifted his head and contemplated the signs in heaven。 he bent down and contemplated the orders on earth. He contemplated the patterns (wen) on birds and beasts, and the suitabilities of the earth. He drew (ideas) from his own person, and from the objects afar. Thereupon he first invented the Eight Trigrams. (Translated by James J. Y. Liu) 2. 文之為德也大矣，與天地并生者何哉！夫玄黃色雜，方圓體分，日月疊璧，以垂麗天之象；山川煥綺，以鋪理地之形， 此蓋道之文也 。仰觀吐曜，俯查含章，高卑定位，故兩儀既生矣；惟人參之，性靈所鐘，是謂三才。為五行 之秀，實(shí)天地之心， 心生而言立，言立而文明，自然之道也 。（劉勰：《文心雕龍 原道》） The power of wen (configurations/culture/literature) is great indeed! It was born together with heaven and earth. How so? (At first) the dark (., the heaven) and the brown (., earth) interspersed their colors。 (then) the square (., earth) and the round (., heaven) separated their bodies。 the sun and the moon, twin jade discs, suspended their signs attached to heaven。 the mountains and rivers, shining like fine silk, spread their orderly arrangements over the earth – these are really the wen (configurations/embellishments) of the Tao. Looking up, one might contemplate that which emitted lights, and bending down, observed that which contained positions (chang) within. When the high (., heaven) and the low (., earth) each had its position fixed, then the Two Forms (Liangyi) were born. Man alone made a third, being the concentration of natural spiritual powers (Hsingling). These are called the Trinity. (Man) is the finest essence of the Five Agents, and truly the mind of heaven and earth. When mind was born, then language was established, then wen (literature/patterns) shone forth. This is a natural principle (tao).( (Translated by James J. Y. Liu) 3. 人文之元，肇始太級(jí)， 幽贊神明，《易》象惟先。庖犧畫其始，仲尼翼其中。而乾、坤兩位，獨(dú)治文言。 言之文也，天地之心哉！ （劉勰：《文心雕龍 原道》） The origin of human wen (culture/literature/embellishments) began with the Great Primordial (T‘a(chǎn)ichi). In profoundly manifesting the divine light, the signs in the Book of Changes were the 7 first. Paohis began (the book) by drawing (the trigrams), and Chungni (., Confucius) pleted it with the Wings. But only on the first two hexagrams, Ch‘ien and K‘un, did he pose the mentary ―wenyen‖ (patterned/embellished words). Now, the wen (pattern/configuration/embellishment) of words – is this not indeed the mind of heaven and earth? ((Translated by James J. Y. Liu) Pragmatic theories emphasize the reader‘s relation to the work, or they highlight on the effects literary works of art have on the reader, be it emotional or didactic or aesthetic (As Abrams puts it: “it looks at the work of art chiefly as means to an end, an instrument for getting something done, and tends to judge its value according to its success in achieving that aim‖). However, it is worth noting that when pragmatic theories began to appear –—they did so for a while without diminishing the importance of mimesis. Both Plato and Aristotle took significant account of the moral effects on the reader and audience. Longinus, by foregrounding the notion of sublime, emphasized emotional effects that poetry is supposed to achieve, and the idea that poetry both delighted and taught was a classical invention monly expressed all the way from Horace to Sir Philip Sidney. There had always been in the Middle Ages and well into the eighteenth century a strong moralistic, didactic criticism. In the eighteenth century, didactic criticism shared power with the new aesthetics and the concept of affect. Alexander Baumgarten established the term ?aesthetic‘ at midcentury, and thereafter theories of aesthetic pleasure abounded, culminating in the Critique of Judgment (1790) of Immanuel Kant. 1. 關(guān)雎，后妃之德也，風(fēng)之始也，所以風(fēng)天下而正夫婦也。固用之鄉(xiāng)人焉，用之邦國焉。風(fēng)，風(fēng)也，教也；風(fēng)以動(dòng)之，教以化之。（《詩大序》） Guan Ju is the virtue (德 )of the Queen Consort and the beginning of the Feng. It is the means by which the world is influenced (風(fēng) ) and by which the relations between husband and wife correct (正 ). Thus it is used in smaller munities, and it is used in large states. ―Airs‖ are ―Influence‖。 it is ―to teach.‖ By influence it stirs them。 by teaching it transforms them. (Preface to the Book of Poetry, Translated by Stephen Owen) 2. 故正得失，動(dòng)天地，感鬼神，莫近于詩。先王以是經(jīng)夫婦，成孝敬，厚人倫，美教化，移風(fēng)俗。（《詩大序》） Thus to correct (正 ) (the presentation of ) achievements (得 ) and failures, to move Heaven and Earth, to stir the gods and spirits, there is nothing more apposite than poetry. By it the former kings managed the relations between husbands and wives, perfected the respect due to parents and superiors, gave depth to human relations, beautifully taught and transformed the people, and 8 changed local customs. (Translated by Stephen Owen) The expressive orientation holds that ―a work of art is essentially the internal made external, resulting from a creative process operating under the impulse of feeling‖ (Abrams). To be specific, according to the expressive theory, a work of art is the verbal expression of the artist‘s inner feeling or individual personality. And this idea is most succinctly expressed by William Wordsworth. ―Poetry‖, Wordsworth announced in his Preface to the Lyrical Ballads of 1800, ―is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings‖. The expressive orientation is not as old as mimesis or the pragmatic orientation, it came with romanticism in the late eighteenth century with Jean Jacques Rousseau as one of its early precursors and the British Romantics as its devoted practitioners. Before Rousseau very little attention had been paid to the authorial individuality as in somethi