【正文】 imize test procedures – To improve the quality of test marking – To validate tests – To standardize tests Teacher development ? Corpora have been used recently in language teacher training to enhance teachers’ language awareness and research skills – Rationale: For students to benefit from the use of corpora, teachers must first of all be equipped with a sound knowledge of the corpusbased approach ? The integration of corpus studies in language teacher training is only a quite recent phenomenon (cf. Chambers 2020) – It may take more time, and ‘perhaps a new generation of teachers, for corpora to find their way into the language classroom’ in secondary education (Braun 2020: 308) Direct uses of corpora ? Leech’s (1997) three direct uses of corpora in teaching – 1) Teaching about ? Teaching corpus linguistics as an academic subject – Part of the curricula for linguistics and language related degree programs at both postgraduate and undergraduate level – 2) Teaching to exploit ? Providing students with ‘handson’ knowhow so that they can exploit corpora as studentcentred learning activities – 3) Exploiting to teach ? Using the corpusbased approach to teaching language and linguistics courses, which would otherwise be taught using noncorpusbased methods ? (1) and (3) are mainly associated with language / linguistics programmes From three P’s to three I’s ? The traditional threeP approach – Presentation – Practice – Production ? The exploratory threeI approach (cf. Carter and McCarthy 1995) – Illustration: looking at real data – Interaction: discussing and sharing opinions and observations – Induction: making one’s own rule for a particular feature, which ‘will be refined and honed as more and more data is encountered’ (ibid 1995: 155) Datadriven learning (DDL) ? Direct use of corpora in pedagogy is essentially DDL ? Johns (1991): ‘research is too serious to be left to the researchers’ – The language learner should be encouraged to bee ‘a(chǎn) research worker whose learning needs to be driven by access to linguistic data’ (Johns 1991) ? Johns (1997: 101) pares the learner to a language detective: ‘Every student a Sherlock Holmes!’ ? His DDL website gives some very good examples of datadriven learning – Datadriven learning (DDL) ? The DDL approach involves three stages of inductive reasoning with corpora (Johns 1991) – Observation (of concordanced evidence) – Classification (of salient features) – Generalization (of rules) ? Roughly corresponding to Carter and McCarthy’s (1995) three I’s in the exploratory corpusbased approach, but fundamentally different from the traditional threeP approach – ThreeP approach: topdown deduction – ThreeI / DDL approach: bottomup induction Datadriven learning (DDL) ? Can be either teacherdirected or learnerled (. ‘discovery learning’) to suit the needs of learners at different levels, but basically learnercentred ? Leech (1997: 10): The autonomous learning process ‘gives the student the realistic expectation of breaking new ground as a “researcher”, doing something which is a unique and individual contribution’ ? This is true of advanced learners only! ? The key to successful datadriven learning is the appropriate level of pedagogical mediation depending on the learners’ age, experience, and proficiency level, etc o ‘A corpus is not a simple object, and it is just as easy to derive nonsensical conclusions from the evidence as insightful ones’ (Sinclair 2020: 2) Direct uses: Current situation ? So far confined largely to learning at more advanced levels, especially in tertiary education ? Almost absent in general ELT classroom, . secondary education (and in the teaching of other foreign languages at all levels) – Learners’ age, level and experience – Time constraints and curricular requirements – Knowledge and skills required of teachers for corpus analysis and pedagogical mediation – Access to appropriate resources such as corpora and tools – …or indeed probably a bination of all of these factors LSP corpora vs. professional munication ? Third focus of convergence: Development of teachingoriented corpora: LSP, parallel, and learner corpora ? Teaching of language for specific purposes and professional munication can benefit greatly from domain or genrespecific specialized corpora both directly and indirectly, . – Coxhead’s (2020) Academic Word List (AWL) – Paul Nation’s Range and GSL/AWL ? – Biber’s (2020) prehensive analysis of university language based on the TOEFL 2020 Spoken and Written Academic Language Corpus – McCarthy and Handford’s (2020) exploration of pedagogical implications regarding spoken business English on the basis of the Cambridge and Nottingham Spoken Business English Corpus (CANBEC) LSP corpora vs. professional munication ? Specialized corpora in translation teaching – ‘Large corpora concordancing’ (LCC) can help students to develop ‘a(chǎn)wareness’, ‘reflectiveness’ and ‘resourcefulness’, the skills that distinguish a translator from those unskilled amateurs (Bernardini 1997) – Corpora help trainee translators bee aware of general patterns and preferred ways of expressing things in the target language, get better prehension of source language texts and improve production skills (Zatin 1998) – Comparable and parallel corpora in translation studies Parallel concordancing ? Parallel corpora and parallel concordancing are particularly useful in translation teaching ? They can also aid the socalled ‘reciprocal learning’ (Johns 1997) – . two language learners with different L1 backgrounds are paired to help each other learn their language Learner corpora ? Weled as one of the most exciting recent developments in corpusbased language studies ? For indirect use, th