【正文】 mpediments. These questions must be resolved by other stipulations in the contract of sale and the applicable law. Incoterms have always been primarily intended for use where goods are sold for delivery across national boundaries: hence, international mercial terms. However, Incoterms are in practice at times also incorporated into contracts for the sale of goods within purely domestic markets. Where Incoterms are so used, the A2 and B2 clauses and any other stipulation of other articles dealing with export and import do, of course, bee redundant. 2. WHY REVISIONS OF INCOTERMS? The main reason for successive revisions of Incoterms has been the need to adapt them to contemporary mercial practice. Thus, in the 1980 revision the term Free Carrier (now FCA) was introduced in order to deal with the frequent case where the reception point in maritime trade was no longer the traditional FOB point (passing of the ship39。s rail) but rather a point on land, prior to loading on board a vessel, where the goods were stowed into a container for subsequent transport by sea or by different means of transport in bination (so called bined or multimodal transport). Further, in the 1990 revision of Incoterms, the clauses dealing with the seller39。s obligation to provide proof of delivery permitted a replacement of paper documentation by EDI messages provided the parties had agreed to municate electronically. Needless to say, efforts are constantly made to improve upon the drafting and presentation of Incoterms in order to facilitate their practical implementation. 3. INCOTERMS 2020 During the process of revision, which has taken about two years, ICC has done its best to invite views and responses to successive drafts from a wide ranging spectrum of world traders, represented as these various sectors are on the national mittees through which ICC operates. Indeed, it has been gratifying to see that this revision process has attracted far more reaction from users around the world than any of the previous revisions of Incoterms. The result of this dialogue is Incoterms 2020, a version which when pared with Incoterms 1990may appear to have effected few changes. It is clear, however, that Incoterms now enjoy world wide recognition and ICC has therefore decided to consolidate upon that recognition and avoid change for its own sake. On the other hand, serious efforts have been made to ensure that the wording used in Incoterms 2020 clearly and accurately reflects trade practice. Moreover, substantive changes have been made in two areas: ● the customs clearance and payment of duty obligations under FAS and DEQ。 and ● the loading and unloading obligations under FCA. All changes, whether substantive or formal have been made on the basis of thorough research among users of Incoterms and particular regard has been given to queries received since 1990 by the Panel of Incoterms Experts, set up as an additional service to the users of Incoterms. 4. INCORPORATION OF INCOTERMS INTO THE CONTRACT OF SALE In view of the changes made to Incoterms from time to time, it is important to ensure that where the parties intend to incorporate Incoterms into their contract of sale, an express reference is always made to the current version of Incoterms. This may easily be overlooked when, for example, a reference has been made to an earlier version in standard contract forms or in order forms used by merchants. A failure to refer to the current version may then result in disputes as to whether the parties intended to incorporate that version or an earlier version as a part of their contract. Merchants wishing to use Incoterms 2020should therefore clearly specify that their contract is governed by Incoterms 2020. 5. THE STRUCTURE OF INCOTERMS In 1990, for ease of understanding, the terms were grouped in four basically different categories: namely starting with the term whereby the seller only makes the goods available to the buyer at the seller39。s own premises (the E term Ex works)。 followed by the second group whereby the seller is called upon to deliver the goods to a carrier appointed by the buyer (the F terms FCA, FAS and FOB)。 continuing with the C terms where the seller has to contract for carriage, but without assuming the risk of loss of or damage to the goods or additional costs due to events occurring after shipment and dispatch (CFR, CIF, CPT and CIP)。 and, finally, the D terms whereby the seller has to bear all costs and risks needed to bring the goods to the place of destination (DAF, DES, DEQ, DDU and DDP). The following chart sets out this classification of the trade terms. INCOTERMS 2020 Group E Departure EXW Ex Works (... named place) Group F Main carriage unpaid FCA Free Carrier (... named place) FAS Free Alongside Ship (... named port of shipment) FOB Free On Board (... named port of shipment) Group C Main Carriage Paid CFR Cost and Freight (... named port of destination) CIF Cost, Insurance and Freight (... named port of destination) CPT Carriage Paid To (... named place of destination) CIP Carriage and Insurance Paid To (... named place of destination) Group D Arrival DAF Delivered At Frontier (... named place) DES Delivered Ex Ship (... named