【正文】 88) – Not a syllabus for vocabulary items only, but rather covering ‘a(chǎn)ll aspects of language, differing from a conventional syllabus only in that the central concept of anization is lexis’ (Hunston 2020: 189) Language testing ? An emerging area of language teaching which has started to use the corpusbased approach ? Alderson (1996) envisaged the following possible uses of corpora in language testing – test construction, pilation and selection, test presentation, response capture, test scoring, and calculation and delivery of results – ‘The potential advantages of basing our tests on real language data, of making databased judgments about candidates’ abilities, knowledge and performance are clear enough. A crucial question is whether the possible advantages are born out in practice’ (Alderson 1996: 258259) Language testing ? The concern raised in Alderson’s conclusion appears to have been addressed satisfactorily 10 years later – Nowadays, puterbased tests are considered to be parable to paperbased tests (cf. Choi, Kim and Boo 2020), as exemplified by puterbased versions of TOFEL tests ? Major test service providers like UCLES have recently used corpora in testing (cf. Ball 2020。 Hunston 2020: 205) – As an archive of examination scripts – To develop test materials – To optimize test procedures – To improve the quality of test marking – To validate tests – To standardize tests Teacher development ? Corpora have been used recently in language teacher training to enhance teachers’ language awareness and research skills – Rationale: For students to benefit from the use of corpora, teachers must first of all be equipped with a sound knowledge of the corpusbased approach ? The integration of corpus studies in language teacher training is only a quite recent phenomenon (cf. Chambers 2020) – It may take more time, and ‘perhaps a new generation of teachers, for corpora to find their way into the language classroom’ in secondary education (Braun 2020: 308) Direct uses of corpora ? Leech’s (1997) three direct uses of corpora in teaching – 1) Teaching about ? Teaching corpus linguistics as an academic subject – Part of the curricula for linguistics and language related degree programs at both postgraduate and undergraduate level – 2) Teaching to exploit ? Providing students with ‘handson’ knowhow so that they can exploit corpora as studentcentred learning activities – 3) Exploiting to teach ? Using the corpusbased approach to teaching language and linguistics courses, which would otherwise be taught using noncorpusbased methods ? (1) and (3) are mainly associated with language / linguistics programmes From three P’s to three I’s ? The traditional threeP approach – Presentation – Practice – Production ? The exploratory threeI approach (cf. Carter and McCarthy 1995) – Illustration: looking at real data – Interaction: discussing and sharing opinions and observations – Induction: making one’s own rule for a particular feature, which ‘will be refined and honed as more and more data is encountered’ (ibid 1995: 155) Datadriven learning (DDL) ? Direct use of corpora in pedagogy is essentially DDL ? Johns (1991): ‘research is too serious to be left to the researchers’ – The language learner should be encouraged to bee ‘a(chǎn) research worker whose learning needs to be driven by access to linguistic data’ (Johns 1991) ? Johns (1997: 101) pares the learner to a language detective: ‘Every student a Sherlock Holmes!’ ? His DDL website gives some very good examples of datadriven learning – Datadriven learning (DDL) ? The DDL approach involves three stages of inductive reasoning with corpora (Johns 1991) – Observation (of concordanced evidence) – Classification (of salient features) – Generalization (of rules) ? Roughly corresponding to Carter and McCarthy’s (1995) three I’s in the exploratory corpusbased approach, but fundamentally different from the traditional threeP approach – ThreeP approach: topdown deduction – ThreeI / DDL approach: bottomup induction Datadriven learning (DDL) ? Can be either teacherdirected or learnerled (. ‘discovery learning’) to suit the needs of learners at different levels, but basically learnercentred ? Leech (1997: 10): The autonomous learning process ‘gives the student the realistic expectation of breaking new ground as a “researcher”, doing something which is a unique and individual contribution’ ? This is true of advanced learners only! ? The key to successful datadriven learning is the appropriate level of pedagogical mediation depending on the learners’ age, experience, and proficiency level, etc o ‘A corpus is not a simple object, and it is just as easy to derive nonsensical conclusions from the evidence as insightful ones’ (Sinclair 2020: 2) Direct uses: Current situation ? So far confined largely to learning at more advanced levels, especially in tertiary education ? Almost absent in general ELT classroom, . secondary education (and in the teaching of other foreign languages at all levels) – Learners’ age, level and experience – Time constraints and curricular requirements – Knowledge and skills required of teachers for corpus analysis and pedagogical mediation – Access to appropriate resources such as corpora and tools – …or indeed probably a bination of all of these factors LSP corpora vs. professional munication ? Third focus of convergence: Development of teachingoriented corpora: LSP, parallel, and learner corpora ? Teaching of language for specific purposes and professional munication can benefit greatly from domain or genrespecific specialized corpora both directly and indirectly, . – Coxhead’s (2020) Academic Word List (AWL) – Paul Nation’s Range and GSL/AWL ? – Biber’s (20