【正文】 oads are pared with the strength of the material reduced by given safety factors. (2)Limit states method, in which the structure may be proportioned on the basis of its maximum strength. This strength, as determined by rational analysis, shall not be less than that required to support a factored load equal to the sum of the factored live load and dead load ( ultimate state ). The stresses corresponding to working ( service ) conditions with unfactored live and dead loads are pared with prescribed values ( service limit state ) . Fro m the four possible binations of the first two and second two methods, we can obtain some useful putational methods. Generally, two binations prevail: (1)deterministic methods, which make use of allowable stresses. (2)Probabilistic methods, which make use of limit states. The main advantage of probabilistic approaches is that, at least in theory, it is possible to scientifically take into account all random factors of safety, which are then bined to define the safety factor. probabilistic approaches depend upon : (1) Random distribution of strength of materials with respect to the conditions of fabrication and erection ( scatter of the values of mechanical properties through out the structure )。 (4) Predicted life of the structure. All these factors are related to economic and social considerations such as： (1) Initial cost of the construction。, and the largest standard types are of about m 179。 至 少在理論上，概率法的主要優(yōu)點(diǎn)是可以科學(xué)的考慮所有隨機(jī)安全系數(shù)，然后將這些隨機(jī)安全系數(shù)組合成確定的安全系數(shù)。這個比值還與結(jié)構(gòu)的破壞概率（危險率）成反比。在挖掘硬土?xí)r，人們發(fā)現(xiàn)在開挖場地經(jīng)常用一輛助推拖拉機(jī)（輪式或履帶式），對返回挖土的鏟運(yùn)機(jī)進(jìn)行助推這種施工方法是經(jīng)濟(jì)的。根據(jù)現(xiàn)有的地圖和標(biāo)高，道路工程師應(yīng)在設(shè)計繪圖室中的工作也并不是徒勞的。因此，在選擇混凝土截面時需要進(jìn)行試算并作調(diào)整，根據(jù)施工現(xiàn)場條件、混凝土原材料的供應(yīng)情況、業(yè)主提出的特殊要求、對建筑和凈空高度的要求、所 用的設(shè)計規(guī)范以及建筑物周圍環(huán)境條件等最后確定截面。因此，截面的受拉區(qū)必須配置抗拉鋼筋和抗剪鋼筋以增加鋼筋混凝土構(gòu)件中較弱的受拉區(qū)的強(qiáng)度。對于梁、柱、墻等構(gòu)件，當(dāng)模板清理干凈后應(yīng)該在其上涂油，鋼筋表面的銹及其他有害物質(zhì)也應(yīng)該被清除干凈。 由于和土木工程中任何其他工種的施工方法與費(fèi)用相比較，土方挖運(yùn)的施工方法與費(fèi)用的變化都要快得多，因此對于有事業(yè)心的人來說，土方工程是一個可以大有作為的領(lǐng)域。推土機(jī) 所推運(yùn)的圖的數(shù)量最多，只是運(yùn)輸距離很短。翻斗車的車斗位于大橡膠輪胎車輪前軸的上方，盡管鉸接式翻斗車的卸料方向有很多種，但大多數(shù)車斗是向前翻轉(zhuǎn)的。 唐 山 學(xué) 院 畢 業(yè) 設(shè) 計 4 （ 2） 概率方法，在這種方法中，主要參數(shù)被認(rèn)為是隨機(jī)參數(shù)。此外，由于強(qiáng)度的分布規(guī)律和應(yīng)力的分布規(guī)律之間的相互關(guān)系是困難的。 and sensitivity of the structure to alternating loads, to fire and to explosions. (2)Service limit states, which are functions of the use and durability of the structure. Examples include excessive deformations and displacements without instability。 (4) Adverse impact on society。. The distinction between dumpers and dump trucks must be remembered .dumpers tip forwards and the driver sits behind the load. Dump trucks are heavy, strengthened tipping lorries, the driver travels in front lf the load and the load is dumped behind him, so they are sometimes called reardump trucks. Safety of Structures The principal scope of specifications is to provide general principles and putational methods in order to verify safety of structures. The “ safety factor ”, which according to modern trends is independent of the nature and bination of the materials used, can usually be defined as the ratio between the conditions. This ratio is also proportional to the inverse of the probability ( risk ) of failure of the structure. Failure has to be considered not only as overall collapse of the structure but also as unserviceability or, according to a more precise. Common definition. As the reaching of a “ limit state ” which causes the construction not to acplish the task it was designed for. There are two categories of limit state : (1)Ultimate limit sate, which corresponds to the highest value of the loadbearing capacity. Examples include local buckling or global instability of the structure。 所有這些因素均與經(jīng)濟(jì)和社會條件有關(guān)，例如： （ 1） 建筑物的初始建設(shè)費(fèi)； （ 2） 建筑物使用期限內(nèi)的折舊費(fèi)； （ 3） 由于建筑物破壞而造成的物質(zhì)和材料損失費(fèi)； （ 4） 在社會上造成的不良影響； （ 5） 精神和心理上的考慮。其例子包括結(jié)構(gòu)的局部屈曲和整體不穩(wěn)定性；某此界面失效，隨后結(jié)構(gòu)轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)闄C(jī)構(gòu)；疲勞破壞；引起結(jié)構(gòu)幾何形狀顯著變化 的彈性變形或塑性變形或徐變；結(jié)構(gòu)對交變荷載、火災(zāi)和爆炸的敏感性。滿載時可達(dá) 10 m179。這并不是經(jīng)?？梢宰龅降?，但是如果能夠做到則是很理想的，因?yàn)檫@樣做既快捷又省錢。由于經(jīng)常需要進(jìn)行多次試算，才能求出所需的截面，因此設(shè)計時第一次采用的數(shù)值將導(dǎo)致一系列的試算與調(diào)整工作。這