【正文】 可能更合適，但人們認(rèn)為訴訟必須對(duì)“是與否”的問(wèn)題作出決定，而樹(shù)立對(duì)立面是這種決定更為簡(jiǎn)單。7. There is but one test of a good system of procedure：Does it tend to the just and efficient determination of legal this connection we must understand one thing： Despite the fact that this unit is only an introduction to the American legal system, we are not to assume that our function here is simply to digest uncritically what we learn from this unit. It is a part of our learning process to examine, to wash in cynical acid, each rule, each form, each principle we learn. But while doing so； keep in mind that many, diverse, and plex are the aspects of both justice and 譯：有且僅有一個(gè)測(cè)試一個(gè)程序體制是否良好的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)：它是否能公正和有效地判定法律糾紛。能干的人，不在情緒上計(jì)較，只在做事上認(rèn)真；無(wú)能的人！不在做事上認(rèn)真，只在情緒上計(jì)較。寧可累死在路上，也不能閑死在家里！寧可去碰壁，也不能面壁?？罐q制的批判者指出，抗辯制趨向于將訴訟變成昂貴的游戲而使訴訟減少，律師將成為訴訟最重要的角色，訴訟的結(jié)果取決于律師的經(jīng)驗(yàn)技巧而非爭(zhēng)議和案件涉及的實(shí)體問(wèn)題。他們對(duì)證據(jù)的可采信性進(jìn)行裁決，但是這是一種消極作用，時(shí)候擯棄不可靠的證據(jù)而非提供作為案件依據(jù)的事實(shí)。這一制度是與通常我們所說(shuō)的糾問(wèn)制相對(duì)的，糾問(wèn)制主要被用于諸如發(fā)過(guò)、德國(guó)的大陸法系國(guó)家。這些定義有嚴(yán)重的缺陷，但若我們從以下幾點(diǎn)去理解它們，它們可能會(huì)服務(wù)于我們：（1）司法程序解決的不是抽象問(wèn)題或假想情形，而是真實(shí)的當(dāng)事人之間的客觀存在的糾紛；（2）這些糾紛將會(huì)由社會(huì)的強(qiáng)制力直接解決；（3）這些解決程序不是隨意設(shè)定的，而是遵循了一些被普遍使用的程序標(biāo)準(zhǔn)；（4）這些標(biāo)準(zhǔn)被用于遵循某些固定原則的訴訟，而這些固定原則在人們稱(chēng)為程序法的一套規(guī)則中都有詳細(xì)的描述。s discretion. Of cases originating in state courts, only those presenting questions of federal law may be considered by the Supreme Court.譯：聯(lián)邦法院系統(tǒng)的最高法院是美國(guó)最高法院。非常重要的一類(lèi)包含當(dāng)事人不在同一州、爭(zhēng)議標(biāo)的額超過(guò)1萬(wàn)美金的案件。這類(lèi)法院通常被稱(chēng)為最高法院，在有些州也被稱(chēng)為上訴法院等其他名稱(chēng)。不論它叫什么名字，這類(lèi)法院都審理所有的案件，不會(huì)被移送到任何其他法院。這些低級(jí)法院被授權(quán)審理和判決小額訴訟或特定種類(lèi)的訴訟。3. The trend toward uniform statutes has tended to reduce this plication, but conflicts of law problems still exist. So, in studying American law, students should be aware that different states may have different substantive laws and different choice of law rules regarding a particular legal situation, resulting in the possibility that the choice of forum may affect the substantive rights of the parties concerned.譯：統(tǒng)一法律規(guī)定的傾向更趨向于減少這種復(fù)雜情況，但法律選擇的紛爭(zhēng)依然存在。憲法優(yōu)先于成文法，成文法優(yōu)先于司法判決的不成文法。在大陸法系統(tǒng)中，由法官判案，所遵循的原則來(lái)源于羅馬法，而今則體現(xiàn)于該國(guó)有效的內(nèi)容廣泛的法典中。設(shè)想某人被他所購(gòu)買(mǎi)的產(chǎn)品傷害。6. Law is also frequently classified into public law and private law. Public law includes those bodies of law that affect the public generally. It can be further divided into constitutional law, administrative law and criminal law. Private law includes the areas of law that concern the relationships between individuals in an organized society. It covers the subjects of contracts, torts and property, each of which can be subdivided into several bodies of law .The law of torts is the primary source of litigation in America. It deals with wrongful acts against a person or his property and is based on the theory that in a civilized society, people who injure other persons or their property must pensate them for their loss.譯：法律也經(jīng)常被分為公法和私法。5. Laws may be classified in many ways. They are sometimes classified as substantive law and procedural law. The rules of law that are used to resolve disputes are referred to substantive law. The legal procedures that determine how a lawsuit is begun, how the trial is conducted, how appeals are taken, and how a judgment is enforced are called procedural law. Substantive law defines rights, and procedural law establishes the procedures by which these rights are enforced and protected. For example, A and B have entered into a agreement, and A claims B has breached the agreement. The rules that provide for bringing B into court and for the conduct of the trial are rather mechanical and they constitute procedural law. Whether the agreement was enforceable and whether A is entitled to damages are matters of substance and would be determined on the basis of the substantive law of contracts.譯：法律分類(lèi)有很多種劃分方法。entity, but may be labor,business,or church the coercion can be psychological as well as physical.譯：另一種觀點(diǎn)認(rèn)為，法律是統(tǒng)治者通過(guò)保持其權(quán)威，建立秩序規(guī)則，統(tǒng)治被統(tǒng)治者的一種方法。grouppeopleset. . . .Unit One :Introduction to the American Legal System is law?Though we used the word “l(fā)aw” very often in our daily conversations,we use it in so many that there is no simple answer to this question.譯：何為法律？縱使我們?cè)谌粘?duì)話中經(jīng)常用到“法律”一詞，我們?nèi)匀粺o(wú)法對(duì)這個(gè)問(wèn)題簡(jiǎn)要回答。ofinneed根據(jù)這種觀點(diǎn)，只有在強(qiáng)制力的機(jī)構(gòu)產(chǎn)生且其通過(guò)實(shí)施社會(huì)規(guī)范來(lái)維持控制時(shí)，法律才開(kāi)始形成。有時(shí)它們被劃分為為實(shí)體法和程序法。公法通常包括影響公眾的法律。銷(xiāo)售法盡管是合同法的一個(gè)部分，它的不少內(nèi)容如果將其列為侵權(quán)法的一個(gè)分支也許是最合適。法官必須將法典中相關(guān)的條文應(yīng)用于正在審理的案件中。法院不會(huì)在有成文法的直接規(guī)定的情況下從先例中找尋依據(jù)。所以，在學(xué)習(xí)美國(guó)法律是，學(xué)生應(yīng)當(dāng)注意，關(guān)于一個(gè)特定的法律情形，不同州可能擁有不同的實(shí)體法律和不同的法律選擇，這導(dǎo)致選擇不同的法院可能影響當(dāng)事人所關(guān)心的實(shí)體權(quán)利。這些有限管轄權(quán)法院的名稱(chēng)和權(quán)力因州而異。（斜體為自己的蹩腳翻譯）8. Most states permit appeal of the determinations made by courts of limited jurisdiction. In some states, a litigant dissatisfied with the result of the decision by the inferior court may request that the case be retried in the court of general jurisdiction. In some states, the appeal to the court of general jurisdiction is the final appeal and in others, the decision of the court of general jurisdiction may be reviewed b